To return to this sets' summary click Overview. For the general product directory, click Directory. Articles Apollo 11 Apollo 13 Magellan: Venus Space Suit Development Ethnic & Gender Diversity Shuttle Mission STS-114 Mars Exploration Rovers Deep Impact International Space Station Other Elements Publisher's Note Index Table of Contents If you need help with products and ordering, setting up a new account or working with this website, call or email us: Phone: (800) 221-1592 Email: csr@salempress.com This is a thorough reference of interest to students and members of the industry seeking detailed knowledge of various aspects of the space program as well as historians who need a place to begin. SciTech Book News   ...an excellent tool suitable for schools, colleges, and public libraries. Gale Group   Lawrence Looks at Books   This is not a lavish, color photo set astounding us with breathtaking space views, but it is an extremely substantive set for the serious researcher. The set is definitely for the high school student and is highly recommended. Reference for Students   ...much of this information would be hard or impossible for students to obtain elsewhere, and for libraries that already own previous editions, the changes are substantial enough to justify replacement. School Library Journal   These thick volumes are essential for any library with technological or historical holdings. They are a significant update of the 1996 edition, with dozens of new essays and photographs. Historians will find these volumes interesting, as will scientists and engineers. American Reference   Books Annual, 2002

Editor: Russell R. Tobias & David G. Fisher,     Lycoming College ISBN: 978-1-58765-259-2 List Price: $331 January 2006 · 3 volumes · 2,076 pages · 8"x10" USA in Space, 3rd Edition Index AAP. See Apollo Applications Program Ablative heat shield. See Heat shields Able (chimpanzee), 574 ABM. See Antiballistic missile ABMA. See Army Ballistic Missile Agency Abort, 1544 Abort guidance system (Apollo), 69 Abort-to-orbit maneuver, 1150, 1159 Absolute magnitude, 1544 Absolute temperature scale, 1544 Absorption spectrum, 1544 ACCESS. See Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures Accidents and tragedies; Apollo 1, 37; Apollo 13, 89, 94; Clementine, 195; Gemini VI, 354; Gemini VIII, 362; Gemini IX, 366; Skylab 1, 308; STS-6, 1100 ACDWS. See Aircraft Dropwindsonde System ACES. See Acoustic Containerless Experiment System Acoustic Containerless Experiment System, 1119 Acoustic shock of takeoff, 1064, 1072 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome experiments in space, 1189 Acquisition, 1544 ACRIM. See Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor, 158, 239, 991 Active experiment, 1544 Active galactic nuclei, 191, 314 Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers, 406, 512 Active repeater satellites, 1371, 1373 Active satellite, 1544 ACTS. See Advanced Communications Technology Satellite Adrastea (moon of Jupiter), 1496 Advanced Communications Technology Satellite, 583, 1227 Advanced Composition Explorer, 274 Advanced Orbiting Solar Observatory, 318 Advanced Photovoltaic and Electronic Experiments satellite, 844 Advanced Radioisotope Power Source Program, 822 Advanced Research Projects Agency, 233, 586, 708, 814, 849, 926 Advanced Space Transportation Program, 691, 917 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, 239 Advanced TIROS-N satellites, 751, 1399 Advanced Turboprop program, 579 Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer, 1399 Advanced vidicon camera system, 250, 748, 809, 1544 AEM. See Animal Enclosure Module AEPI. See Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imaging spectrometer Aerobee rocket, 286 Aerobraking, 607-608, 668 Aerodynamics, 1544 Aerogel, 138 Aerography, 1544 Aerojet-General Corporation, 569 Aeronautics, 1544 Aeronomy, 278, 286, 1544 Aerosols, 1350-1351 Aerospace, 1544 Aerospace Corporation, 220 African Americans in space, 1095 AFSATCOM. See Air Force Satellite Communications system Age and space travel, 1095, 1284, 1286, 1292 Agena launch vehicle stage, 330, 354, 360, 363, 570, 624. See also Atlas-Agena launch vehicles Agency for International Development, 133 Aging in space, 478 AGN. See Active galactic nuclei Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes (1972), 126 Agriculture; and the Global Positioning System, 399; Landsat data, 552, 555-556 AID. See Agency for International Development AIDSAT, 134 Air Density Explorers, 265, 270 Air Force, U.S., 175, 233, 377, 570, 575, 586, 611, 617, 735, 752, 824, 849, 853, 933, 997, 999, 1006; rocket development, 150 Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, 153 Air Force Maui Optical System, 1222 Air Force Satellite Communications system (military telecommunications satellites), 763 Air Force Space Command, 1428 Air launching, 844, 846 Air lock, 1544 Air-Mass Transformation Experiment, 392 Air Research and Development Command, 153 Air traffic control satellites, 1, 5 Airbus (bus), 1544 Aircraft Dropwindsonde System, 393 Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 579 Aircraft engines, 579 Airglow, 704, 744-745, 1544 AIRS. See Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ALAE. See Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emission ultraviolet spectrometer Albedo, 1545 Almaz spy satellites (Soviet), 620 Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer investigation, 1283 Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer, 680 Alpha Ursa Major (star), 847, 977 Alphonsus (lunar crater), 911 ALSEP. See Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages ALT. See Approach and Landing Tests Altitude, 1545 Amateur radio, 947, 951 Amateur radio satellites, 6, 11; defined, 1545 Amateur Radio Service, 6 America (Apollo 17 Command and Service Module), 120 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 320 American Satellite ASC-1, 1153, 1164 Ames Life Sciences Directorate, 13 Ames Research Center, 12, 17, 169, 779, 853, 862, 870, 876, 999 AMOS. See Air Force Maui Optical System AMS. See Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer investigation AMTEX. See Air-Mass Transformation Experiment AMU. See Astronaut Maneuvering Unit Andromeda galaxy, 190, 422, 434, 830 Anemometer, 1545 Angstrom, 1545 Angular momentum, 1545 Anik. See Telesat Animal Enclosure Module, 1090, 1094, 1120 Animals in space; Able (chimpanzee), 574; Baker (chimpanzee), 574; Bonny (pigtail monkey), 171; development, 1241, 1285; Enos (chimpanzee), 153, 173; frogs, 171, 1215; Ham (chimpanzee), 173, 725, 1314; insects, 1128; jellyfish, 1036, 1207; Laika (dog), 172, 256, 1448; minnows, 966; Miss Sam, 710; monkeys, 1146; Pale Face (chimpanzee), 1337; rodents, 1036, 1090, 1094, 1110, 1120, 1146, 1207; Sam (monkey), 710; spiders, 966; sponges, 1081 ANNA, Project, 378 Antares (Apollo 14 Lunar Module), 95 Antiballistic missile (ABM), 1545 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), 1345 Antimatter, 420, 1283, 1285; defined, 1545 Antipodal bombers, 1023 Antisatellites, 164; defined, 1545 Apennine Mountains (Moon), 31 APEX. See Advanced Photovoltaic and Electronic Experiments satellite Aphelion, 1545 Aphrodite Terra (Venus), 878 Apoapsis, 1545 Apocynthion, 1545 Apogee, 1545 Apollo 1 fire, 20, 37, 44, 928 Apollo 2, 39 Apollo 3, 39 Apollo 4, 20, 39 Apollo 5, 20, 39, 928 Apollo 6, 20, 39 Apollo 7, 20, 44, 49 Apollo 8, 20, 50, 56 Apollo 9, 20, 57, 63 Apollo 10, 20, 64, 71 Apollo 11, 72, 79; geological results, 27, 75 Apollo 12, 21, 80, 88; geological results, 27 Apollo 13, 21, 89, 94 Apollo 13 (film), 92 Apollo 14, 21, 95, 99; geological results, 97 Apollo 15, 21, 100, 105; geological results, 28 Apollo 16, 21, 112, 118; geological results, 28 Apollo 17, 21, 119, 125, 193; geological results, 28 Apollo 18, 128 Apollo Applications Program, 689, 952 Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages, 77, 83, 114, 820 Apollo Program, 18, 26, 193, 576, 587, 687, 1316; development, 34, 43; geological results, 22, 27, 33, 591; landing sites, 596; RTGs used on, 819 Apollo-Saturn 201, 36 Apollo-Saturn 202, 37 Apollo-Saturn 203, 37 Apollo-Saturn 204. See Apollo 1 fire Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, 126, 131, 207, 315, 782, 1263; and ATS 6, 134 Apollo Telescope Mount, 303, 689, 952, 961, 969, 990, 993, 1383 Apolune, 1545 Apparent magnitude, 1545 Apparent motion, 1545 Applications Explorer Mission A. See Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Applications Explorer Mission 2, 1352 Applications Technology Satellites, 1, 132, 137, 979; ATS 1, 132; ATS 3, 132; ATS 5, 132; ATS 6, 133; defined, 1545 Approach and Landing Tests (shuttle), 1029 APT. See Automatic picture transmission APU. See Auxiliary power units APXS. See Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer Aqua (Earth observation satellite), 240 Aquarius (Apollo 13 Lunar Module), 90 Arab Satellite Communications Organization, 1143 Arabian satellites, 1143 Arabsat 1B, 1143 Aram Chaos area (Mars), 671 Archaeology and the Global Positioning System, 399 Archimedes (Moon crater), 597 Ares Vallis (Mars), 682-683 ARGOS (Doppler data collection system), 932, 1399 Argus (satellite), 246 Aria-1 (GAS experiment), 389 Ariel (moon of Uranus), 1508 Ariel 2 (British satellite), 297 Aristarchus (Moon crater), 196 Arm. See Remote Manipulator System; Robot arm Army, U.S., 164, 176, 259, 283, 400, 403, 460, 569, 575, 586, 686, 711, 756, 761, 778, 996 Army Air Corps, U.S., 532, 580. See also Air Force, U.S Army Ballistic Missile Agency, 259, 283, 686, 778, 850, 926, 1449 Army Space Command, 1428 Array, 1545 Arsia Mons (Mars), 672 AS-201. See Apollo-Saturn 201 AS-202. See Apollo-Saturn 202 AS-203. See Apollo-Saturn 203 AS-204. See Apollo 1 fire; Apollo 5 AS-205. See Apollo 2 AS-501. See Apollo 4 AS-502. See Apollo 6 ASA. See Astronaut Science Advisor ASCA (satellite), 191 Ascent stage, 1545 AsiaSat 1, 1134 Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures, 1156 ASTER. See Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Asteroid belt, 1546 Asteroids, 892-893; defined, 1546; Earth impacts, 324; exploration of, 138, 142; Moon impacts, 22, 30. See also Comets; Craters; Meteorites Asthenosphere, 1546 ASTP. See Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Astro E (satellite), 191 Astro Observatory, 1013 Astro Rocket, 1034 Astroliner (space plane), 916 Astronaut Maneuvering Unit, 333, 367, 611 Astronaut Office (JSC), 544 Astronaut Rescue and Return Agreement, 1431 Astronaut Science Advisor, 1037 Astronautics, 1546 Astronauts, U.S., 143, 149, 620; defined, 1546; ethnic and gender diversity, 253, 258; Mercury program, 701 Astronettes, 253 Astronomical Search for Origins Program, 1386 Astronomical unit (AU), 1546 Astronomy, 1546 Astronomy Explorers, 271, 276 Astronomy satellite, 1546 Astrophysics, 1546 ATDA. See Augmented Target Docking Adapter Atlantis (shuttle orbiter), 156, 199, 322, 423, 470, 486, 500, 505, 605, 820, 922, 1008, 1044, 1150, 1183, 1194, 1206, 1212, 1225, 1239, 1246, 1254, 1259, 1266, 1273, 1278, 1294, 1303, 1393 ATLAS. See Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science Atlas-Able launch vehicles, 153 Atlas-Agena launch vehicles, 153, 176, 329 Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles, 153-154, 176 Atlas launch vehicles, 150, 155, 572, 574-576, 624, 643, 701, 711, 727; Atlas III, 154; Atlas I, 154; Atlas II, 154; Atlas V, 154; ICBMs, 176, 1403. See also Mercury, Project, and Mercury-Atlas ATM. See Apollo Telescope Mount ATMOS. See Atmospheric Trace Molecules Spectroscopy experiment Atmosphere, 1546 Atmosphere (Earth’s), 277; Nimbus data, 808, 813; SAGE data, 1350, 1355; solar wind, 1420; UARS data, 1436 Atmosphere Explorers, 230, 277, 282 Atmospheric bulges, 267, 1450 Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imaging spectrometer, 160 Atmospheric Infrared Sounder, 240 Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science, 156, 162, 1212; ATLAS-1, 156, 1212; ATLAS-2, 156, 1226; ATLAS-3, 156, 1013, 1241 Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emission ultraviolet spectrometer, 159 Atmospheric pollution, 1013; ATLAS data, 1229; Landsat data, 561; MAPS data, 1071, 1242; Mariner 10 data, 659; MOPITT data, 239 Atmospheric pressure, 1546 Atmospheric temperature measurement, 811 Atmospheric Trace Molecules Spectroscopy experiment, 157, 1142, 1146 ATN satellites. See Advanced TIROS-N satellites Atom, 1546 Atomic bomb, 1403; effect on space program, 154 Atomic Energy Commission, 533, 580, 814, 819 ATP. See Advanced Turboprop program ATS. See Applications Technology Satellites Attack satellites, 163, 168 Attitude, 1546 Attitude control system, 1546 AU. See Astronomical unit Augmented Target Docking Adapter, 366 Aura (Earth observation satellite), 240 Aurora 7, 703, 732 Auroral kilometric radiation, 976 Auroras, 229, 277, 976, 994; defined, 1546 Australian National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 217 Australian satellites; Aussat-1, 1153, 1163; Aussat-2, 1155 Automatic picture transmission, 250, 527, 748, 757, 809-810, 1397 Auxiliary power units; defined, 1546 Auxiliary power units (shuttle), 1063, 1069, 1075 AVCS. See Advanced vidicon camera system AVHRR. See Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer Aviation and the Global Positioning System, 398 Avionics, 1546 AX space suits, 1307 AXAF. See Chandra X-Ray Observatory Axis, 1546 Azimuth, 1547 B. F. Goodrich Company, 1305 Backup crew, 1547 Bahcall Report, 1003 Baka (Japanese aircraft), 1023 Baker (chimpanzee), 574 Ball Aerospace, 424, 444, 975 Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, 194, 1347 Ballistic Missile Early-Warning System, 234 Ballistic missiles, 176, 798, 1345; defined, 1547; Vandenberg Air Force Base, 1440. See also Intercontinental ballistic missiles; Intermediate range ballistic missiles Ballistics, 1547 Bamsi Incorporated, 1422 Banana River Naval Air Station, 175 Bandwidths, 6 Bar. See Atmospheric pressure Barbecue maneuver, 65, 1083; defined, 1547 Barnacle Bill (Martian rock), 683 Barycenter, 1547 Bathrooms in space, 1044 BATSE. See Burst and Transient Source Experiment Beacon Explorers, 284, 379 Belka (dog), 173 Bell Telephone Laboratories, 220, 1368, 1373 Betelgeuse (star), 434 Bhangmeters, 815; defined, 1547 Big bang, 426, 937, 1004, 1250; defined, 1547 Big Bird (spy satellite), 234, 1338, 1442, 1444 Big Blue Cube, 1079 Big Joe (Martian rock), 1462, 1465 Big Joe (rocket), 152, 708, 1314 Big LEOs, 774 Binary star, 1547 Biological experiments in space, 169, 174, 210, 344, 356, 388, 465, 966, 1036, 1040, 1082. See also Aging in space; Animals in space; Biomedical research; Blood; Bone loss in space; Cancer cells in space; Inner ear; Microgravity; Plants in space; Space sickness Biological satellites. See Biosatellites Biomedical research, 535, 704, 716, 1036, 1040, 1094, 1284 Biosatellites, 169, 174; defined, 1547 Biotelemetry, 1547 BL Lac objects, 315 Black dwarf, 1547 Black holes, 190, 273, 315, 419, 426, 434, 817, 831; defined 1547 Blazars, gamma-ray, 203 Blood, effects of space travel on, 339, 373 Blueshift, 1547 BMEWS. See Ballistic Missile Early-Warning System Boeing (aerospace company), 492, 655, 687, 689, 1422 BOMI (Bomber-Missile space plane), 1024 Bone loss in space, 333, 479 Bonny (pigtail monkey), 171 Boom, 1547 Booster. See Rocket booster Bow shock; defined, 1547; Earth’s, 510, 858; Jupiter’s, 864, 1480, 1494; Mercury’s, 659; Saturn’s, 1486, 1500; Venus’s, 639, 658, 879 Braille (asteroid), 804, 806 Breccia, 1547 Brick moon (Hale), 798 Brown dwarfs, 435, 1003-1004 Bumper rockets, 175 Bumper-Wac rockets, 533 Buoyancy, 694 Burn, 1547 Burst and Transient Source Experiment, 201, 1385 Buzzing, 40 Byeman code names, 1339 C-band, 1548 CAENEX. See Complex Atmospheric Energetics Experiment Caldera, 1548 California Air & Space Center, 781 California Institute of Technology, 532 Callisto (moon of Jupiter), 325, 893, 1482, 1495 Caloris Basin (Mercury), 658 Canberra, Australia, 214 Cancer cells in space, 466, 1284 Canopus (star), 594, 631, 644, 1548 Cape Canaveral, 175, 181, 1000. See also Kennedy Space Center Capsule communicator (CapCom), 1548 Carbon dioxide in the thermosphere, 1094 Cardiovascular effects of spaceflight, 1093, 1146 CAS. See Committee on Atmospheric Sciences CASC. See California Air & Space Center Casper (Apollo 16 Command and Service Module), 112 Cassegrain telescopes, 444, 1381; defined, 1548 Cassini Division (Saturn), 1502 Cassini-Huygens mission. See Cassini mission Cassini mission, 182, 187, 432, 536, 820, 891, 1482, 1489 Cassiopeia A (supernova remnant), 190, 1092, 1303 Castor boosters, 221 Cataclysmic variables, 314 Catadioptric telescopes, 1382 CCD. See Charge coupled device Celescope, 828-829 Celestial mechanics, 1548 Celestial sphere, 1548 Celestis (commercial satellite), 846 Celsius scale, 1548 Centaur launch vehicle stage, 573, 580, 623. See also Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles Center for Extreme Ultraviolet Astrophysics at Berkeley, 315 Centers for Commercial Development of Space, 1323 Central Intelligence Agency, 1441 Centrifuge, 1548 Centrifuge Facility (ISS), 491 Cepheid variables, 426, 435; defined, 1548 CERES. See Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System CFES. See Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System CGRO. See Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Chalet satellites, 246 Challenger (Apollo 17 Lunar Module), 120 Challenger (shuttle orbiter), 2, 178, 256, 992, 1008, 1045, 1087, 1099, 1105, 1116, 1124, 1130, 1138, 1150, 1320, 1411 Challenger accident, 146, 179, 320, 322, 380, 400, 406, 576, 620, 689, 795, 847, 890, 918, 923, 977, 1008, 1134, 1173, 1180-1181, 1187, 1222, 1276, 1411, 1416, 1443, 1512; assessment, 1177; impact on space program, 1179. See also Shuttle mission STS 51-L Champollion mission, 805 Chandra X-Ray Observatory, 188, 192, 1018, 1295, 1300, 1385 Chandrasekhar limit, 1548 Charge, 1548 Charge coupled device (CCD), 1548 Charlie Brown (Apollo 10 Command and Service Module), 64 Charlotte (robot), 1325, 1327 Charon (moon of Pluto), 535; Hubble images, 432; Pluto-Kuiper mission, 895, 899 CHASE. See Coronal Helium Abundance Experiment Chernobyl nuclear accident (1986), 236 Chimpanzees. See Animals in space China, People’s Republic of, 815 Chinese military satellites, 166 Chlorofluorocarbons, 1434, 1437 Chromatographic methods of materials processing, 696 Chromosphere. See Sun Chronograph, 1548 Chryse Planitia (Mars), 1460 Cimmerium (Martian crater), 633 Cinema-360 project (STS 41-B), 1121 Circular orbit; defined, 1549 CIRRIS. See Cryogenic Infrared Radiation Instrumentation for the Shuttle Civil Space Technology Initiative, 795 Clementine mission, 32, 193, 198, 536, 588, 891; Clementine 2, 195 Climate change, 241, 767, 771, 812, 994; ocean circulation, 770. See also Global warming Climate Orbiter. See Mars Climate Orbiter Climate Variability project, 243 Clipper Bow (spy satellite), 824 CLIVAR. See Climate Variability project Close Look (Project Keyhole), 1338 Closing rate, 1549 Clothing in space, 1043. See also Space suits Clouds; Earth’s Radiant Energy System, 239; nacreous, 1437; polar, 1436-1437; TIROS data, 1400 Clouds, Sea of (Moon), 911 CMHC. See Computer Museum History Center “Coke bottle” space capsule, 708 Cold War, 206, 236, 244, 586, 686, 735, 1270, 1297, 1343, 1345, 1349, 1403 Columbia (Apollo 11 Command Module), 73 Columbia (shuttle orbiter), 188, 204, 257, 322, 423, 436, 500, 947, 1007, 1034, 1038, 1050, 1060, 1069, 1075, 1091, 1112, 1121, 1168, 1181, 1194, 1206, 1212, 1222, 1225, 1239, 1247, 1273, 1278, 1283, 1294, 1300, 1394, 1423 Columbus Orbital Facility (ISS), 484 Combustion in space, 466, 1256, 1281, 1326. See also Fire hazards in spacecraft Comet Nucleus Tour, 139 Comets, 315, 512, 517; defined, 1549; exploration of, 138, 142; IRAS discoveries, 446; SOHO discoveries, 986. See also Asteroids; Meteorites; specific names Command and Service Module, 1549 Command and Service Module (Apollo), 18, 35. See also Command Module Command Module (Apollo), 44, 51, 72. See also Command and Service Module Commercial Space Act (1998), 903 Commercial use of space, 847, 900, 918, 942, 1323, 1329, 1425. See also Private industry Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, 391 Committee on Space Research, 391 Communications Satellite Act (1962), 450 Communications Satellite Corporation, 450, 902, 1362, 1370, 1374 Communications satellites. See Telecommunications satellites Communications Technology Satellite, 581 Complex Atmospheric Energetics Experiment, 392 COMPTEL (telescope), 200, 1385 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 191, 199, 205, 1206, 1208, 1385 Computer Museum History Center, 782 Computer Science Corporation, 781 Comsat; defined, 1549 COMSAT. See Communications Satellite Corporation Comstar satellites, 1375 Cone Crater (Moon), 97 Congress, U.S., and NASA, 318 Conjunction, 1549 Constellation, 1549 Contact lenses produced in space, 1327 Contact 2 (Mars), 670 Contamination of spacecraft, 465 Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, 903, 1080, 1088, 1090, 1101, 1106, 1110, 1145, 1155 CONTOUR. See Comet Nucleus Tour Convair, 150, 572. See also General Dynamics Convection, 1241; defined, 1549 Convective zone, solar, 987 Copernicus (Moon crater), 596 Copernicus (OAO 3), 518, 830 Core, 1549 Core sample, 1549 Corned beef sandwich episode (Gemini 3), 338 Corona. See Sun CORONA satellites, 1338 Coronal Helium Abundance Experiment, 1151 Coronal holes, 840, 962 Coronal transients, 993 Coronascopes, 1383 Corporal missile, 533, 574 Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement, 424, 438, 1228, 1236, 1384 Cosmic Background Explorer, 274, 1003 Cosmic dust, 626, 633, 1450; defined, 1549. See also Micrometeoroids Cosmic railway (Tsiolkovsky), 1390 Cosmic ray detector, 1549 Cosmic-Ray Nuclei instrument, 1151 Cosmic rays, 297, 417, 419, 852, 976; defined, 1549 Cosmodrome, 1549 Cosmology, 298; defined, 1550 Cosmonaut, 1550 COSPAR. See Committee on Space Research COSPAS/SARSAT satellites, 9, 210, 932 COSTAR. See Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement Costs and benefits of the space program, 317 Countdown, 1550 Courier (military communications satellite), 761 Crab nebula, 190, 418, 434, 446 Craters; defined, 1550; lunar, 22, 588, 911-912, 1359; Mars, 632, 671, 684, 1465; Venus, 607. See also specific names Crew Return Vehicles (ISS), 458, 461, 484, 1027 Crew Transfer Vehicles (ISS), 478 CRISTA-SPAS-2. See Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite-2 CRNE. See Cosmic-Ray Nuclei instrument Cruise missiles, 176, 1550 Crust, 1550 CRV. See Crew Return Vehicles Cryogenic fuels, 1550 Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for the Shuttle, 1079, 1207 Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite-2, 1279 Cryospheric systems, 242 Crystal growth, 130, 486, 696, 1081, 1094, 1133, 1145, 1147, 1169, 1189, 1215-1216, 1229, 1241, 1327; proteins, 1190, 1199, 1222, 1248, 1280, 1282 CSM. See Command and Service Module CTS. See Communications Technology Satellite CTV. See Crew Transfer Vehicles Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), 166 Current sheet (solar rotation), 872 CXRO. See Chandra X-Ray Observatory Cyclotron radiation, 1550 Cydonia (Mars), 674 Cygnus superbubble, 418-419 Cygnus X-1, 420, 816, 831, 992 D-558-II aircraft, 1024 Dactyl (moon of Ida), 195, 1196 Dall-Kirkham telescope, 1381 Dark matter, 435, 1003, 1283, 1285 DARPA. See Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency D’Arrest (comet), 139 Data acquisition, 1550 Data Collection Satellites, 846 Data transmission from spacecraft, 214 David Clark Company, 1306 Day (Earth), 1551 DBS. See Direct broadcast satellite Debris. See Space debris Dedicated Discipline Laboratories, 1333 Deep Impact mission, 139 Deep-Sky Survey (EUVE), 313 Deep space, 1550 Deep Space 1, 536, 804 Deep Space 2, 805 Deep Space Network, 214, 219, 326, 492, 536, 853, 1320 Deep space probe, 1550 Deep Survey Spectrometer Telescope, 312 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, 786 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, 529, 752, 1429 Defense Navigation Satellite System, 400 Defense Satellite Communications System, 246, 761 Deforestation, 771 Deimos (moon of Mars), 652, 1463-1464 Delta Clipper (SSTO vehicle), 916 Delta launch vehicles, 176, 179, 220, 227, 406, 571 Delta wing, 1024-1025 Density, 1550 De-orbit, 1550 Department of Defense, 533, 586; shuttle missions, 1036, 1137, 1153, 1183, 1194, 1200, 1202, 1207-1208, 1214; shuttle payloads, 1137 Descartes region (Moon), 112 Descent orbit insertion, 67, 82 Descent stage, 1550 Dewar, 1550 DGPS. See Differential Global Positioning Systems Dielectric, 1550 Differential Global Positioning Systems, 397 Diffusion Mixing of Organic Solution experiment, 1155 Digital imaging. See Imaging Dimple craters, 912 Dione (moon of Saturn), 1503 Direct broadcast satellite, 1376; defined, 1550 Dirty snowball theory, 1550 Discoverer satellites, 234, 814, 826, 997, 1337, 1342, 1441, 1444 Discovery (shuttle orbiter), 138, 156, 246, 423, 430, 438, 470, 500, 518, 922, 1008, 1106, 1130, 1138, 1152, 1163, 1171, 1183, 1187, 1193, 1206, 1212, 1225, 1239, 1245, 1253, 1259, 1278, 1283, 1288, 1294, 1303, 1321, 1325, 1346, 1412, 1416, 1434 Diurnal, 1550 DMOS. See Diffusion Mixing of Organic Solution experiment DMSP. See Defense Meteorological Satellite Program DNSS. See Defense Navigation Satellite System Dock, 1550 Docking maneuvers. See Rendezvous and docking maneuvers Dogs. See Animals in space Domestic communications satellite, 1550 Doppler effect, 932, 949; defined, 1550 Dornier Company (West Germany), 511 Douglas Aircraft Company, 220, 377, 618 Downlink, 1551 Drinking water in space, 348 Drogue chute, 1551 Drug manufacture in space, 466, 486, 1053 Dryden-Blagonravov Agreement (1962), 206 Dryden Flight Research Center, 13, 779, 1007, 1030 Dust storms on Jupiter, 326 Dynamics Explorers, 228, 232 Dyna-Soar, 617, 735, 918, 1006, 1024, 1034 Eagle (Apollo Lunar Module), 20, 73 Eagle nebula; Hubble images, 426, 433 Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package, 72, 74 Early Bird satellite, 343, 1374 Early-warning satellites, 233, 238, 247, 815, 981; defined, 1551 Earth and Ocean Physics Applications Program, 380 Earth day, 1551 Earth Observation Satellite Company, 562, 902 Earth observation satellites; Air Density Explorers, 265, 270; Earth Observing System, 239, 243; EO-1, 805; Landsats, 548, 553-554, 558-559, 563; meteorological, 753; Mission to Planet Earth, 767, 772; Orbiting Geophysical Observatories, 834; shuttle data, 1242; Skylab, 970; spy satellites, 1343. See also Atmospheric pollution; Environmental Science Services Administration satellites; Global warming; Greenhouse effect; Landsat satellites; Meteorological satellites; Ozone depletion; Remote sensing; specific satellites Earth Observing System, 768 Earth Observing System satellites, 562, 805, 812 Earth-orbital probe, 1551 Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, 406, 1108, 1111, 1352 Earth resources; Landsat data, 551, 556 Earth Resources Observation Satellite, 548 Earth resources satellite, 1551 Earth Resources Survey Program, 409 Earth Resources Technology Satellite. See Landsat satellites Earth Science Enterprise, 239, 812 EASE. See Experimental Assembly of Structures in Extravehicular Activity EASEP. See Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package Eastern Test Range, 175, 1000 Eccentric Geophysical Observatory satellites, 834 Eccentricity, 1551 Echo communications satellites, 207, 565, 739, 1368 Eclipse, 1551 Ecliptic plane, 1416; defined, 1551 ECLSS. See Environmental Control and Life Support Systems Educational satellite (ATS 6), 133 Edwards Air Force Base, 179, 1007 EGO. See Eccentric Geophysical Observatory satellites EGRET. See Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope Einstein Observatory, 191, 416, 419, 1303 Ejecta, 1551 El Niño, 770 Electric propulsion, 581 Electromagnetic interference, 464 Electromagnetic radiation, 1551 Electromagnetic scanning of Earth’s atmosphere, 251 Electromagnetic spectrum, 199, 296, 312, 517, 990; defined, 1551 Electron, 1552 Electronic intelligence satellites, 244, 248, 824; defined, 1552. See also Spy satellites Electrophoresis, 695, 903, 1076, 1089, 1106; defined, 1552. See also Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System Elektron satellites (Soviet), 815 Elementary particles, 1552 ELINT. See Electronic intelligence satellites Ellington Air Force Base, 539 Ellipse, 1552 Elliptical orbit, 1552; highly elliptical orbit, 1555 ELT. See Emergency locator-transmitters ELV. See Expendable launch vehicles Emergency locator-transmitters, 933 Emergency pointing/indicating radio beacons, 933 EMI. See Electromagnetic interference Emission spectrum, 1552 EMUs. See Extravehicular Mobility Units; Space suits Enceladus (moon of Saturn), 1502 Encke (comet), 139 Encke Division, 1502 Endeavour (Apollo 15 Command and Service Module), 100 Endeavour (shuttle orbiter), 210, 387, 424, 438, 453, 471, 495, 501, 1020, 1055, 1209, 1212, 1219, 1225, 1233, 1239, 1245, 1262, 1273, 1283, 1294, 1321, 1324, 1412 Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope, 201, 1385 Energy crisis (1970’s), 536 Energy of a satellite, 266 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus, 240, 560 Enos (chimpanzee), 153, 173 Enterprise (shuttle prototype), 1007, 1029, 1035, 1443 Environment; Landsat data, 561; Mission to Planet Earth, 767, 772. See also Atmospheric pollution Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ISS), 477 Environmental Science Services Administration satellites, 249, 252, 748, 1398 EOLE (satellite), 529 EOPAP. See Earth and Ocean Physics Applications Program EOS. See Earth Observing System EOS Data and Information System, 770 EOSDIS. See EOS Data and Information System Epimetheus (moon of Saturn), 1503 EPIRB. See Emergency pointing/indicating radio beacons Epsilon Canis Majoris (star), 314 Equator (Earth’s) and weather, 134 Equatorial orbit, 1552 ERIS. See Exoatmospheric Reentry Interceptor System EROS. See Earth Resources Observation Satellite Eros (asteroid), 140, 891 EROS Data Center, 550, 555, 560 ERTS. See Landsat ESA. See European Space Agency Escape velocity, 1552 ESP. See Extravehicular Support Package ESRO. See European Space Research Organization ESSA satellites. See Environmental Science Services Administration satellites Eta Carinae (star), 426, 434 Ethnic diversity in the U.S. space program, 253, 258, 1159, 1291; Mir-shuttle joint missions, 1263 ETM+. See Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus EUMETSAT. See European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites EURECA. See European Retrievable Carrier Europa (moon of Jupiter), 325, 890, 893, 1473, 1482, 1495-1496; water, 936 European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, 751 European Retrievable Carrier, 1214, 1227 European Space Agency, 473, 1416 European Space Research Organization, 1334 EUVE. See Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer EVA. See Extravehicular activity Event horizon, 1552 Exercise in space, 351 Exoatmospheric Reentry Interceptor System, 1346 Exobiology, 936, 940; defined, 1552. See also Extraterrestrial life Exosphere, 1552 Expanding universe theory, 271, 1004; Hubble evidence, 427 Expendable launch vehicles, 569, 576, 578, 901, 977; Atlas series, 150, 155; defined, 1552; Delta series, 220, 227; at Kennedy Space Center, 179; military use, 1146; Saturn series, 926, 931; Titan series, 1403, 1409; Vanguard series, 1447 Experimental Assembly of Structures in Extravehicular Activity, 1156 Explorer 1, 176, 259, 283, 378, 403, 533, 575, 686, 1000, 1449 Explorer 2, 261 Explorer 3, 261 Explorer 4, 261, 814 Explorer 5, 261 Explorer 6, 261 Explorer 7, 251, 261, 271, 748, 753 Explorer 8, 283 Explorer 9, 266, 999 Explorer 11, 203, 271, 296, 829 Explorer 13 (S-55A), 290 Explorer 16 (S-55B), 290 Explorer 17, 278 Explorer 18, 521 Explorer 19, 267 Explorer 20, 284 Explorer 21, 522 Explorer 22, 284 Explorer 23, 272, 291 Explorer 24, 267 Explorer 25, 267 Explorer 27, 285 Explorer 28, 522 Explorer 29, 379 Explorer 30, 272, 300, 379 Explorer 32, 278 Explorer 33, 522 Explorer 34, 522 Explorer 35, 522 Explorer 36, 379 Explorer 37, 272, 301 Explorer 38, 272, 295 Explorer 39, 267 Explorer 40, 267 Explorer 42, 273 Explorer 43, 523 Explorer 44, 273, 302 Explorer 46, 291 Explorer 48, 203, 273 Explorer 49, 273, 295 Explorer 51, 278 Explorer 53, 274 Explorer 54, 278 Explorer 55, 278 Explorer S-55, 290 Explorers; Advanced Compton, 274; Air Density, 265, 270; Astronomy, 271, 276; Atmosphere, 277, 282; Cosmic Background, 274; Dynamics, 228, 232; Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, 312, 316; International Monitoring Platform, 521, 525; International Sun-Earth, 510, 514; International Ultraviolet Explorer, 515, 520; Ionosphere, 283, 288; Micrometeoroid, 289, 294; Radio Astronomy, 272-273, 295, 299; Rossi X-Ray Timing, 274; Small Explorers, 974, 978; Solrads, 272, 300, 305; X-Ray, 273 External tank (shuttle), 1552 Extrasolar planets, 892 Extraterrestrial life; Mars, 675, 1468; search for, 936, 940. See also Exobiology Extravehicular activity, 306, 311, 332, 339, 342, 367-368, 372, 424, 438, 478, 501, 611, 614, 1012, 1081, 1093, 1158, 1160, 1165, 1216, 1255, 1295; Apollo 9, 58; defined, 1552; Gemini III, 331; Hubble servicing missions, 1233; space suits, 1307, 1309; unplanned, 1146; untethered, 1117, 1241 Extravehicular Mobility Units, 1043, 1164, 1308. See also Manned Maneuvering Unit; Space suits Extravehicular Support Package, 611 Extreme ultraviolet. See Ultraviolet radiation Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, 274, 312, 316 F region. See Thermosphere FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration Face on Mars, 674 Fairchild Industries, 511 Faith 7, 703, 742, 747 Falcon (Apollo 15 Lunar Module), 100 False-color image, 1552 Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope, 160 FARE. See Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Experiment FAST. See Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer, 846, 974 Fast On-Orbit Recording of Transient Events satellite, 816, 847, 1343 Faster, better, cheaper policy, 320, 460, 599, 665, 680, 684, 806, 847, 977 FAUST. See Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope FBC. See Faster, better, cheaper policy FCSS. See Flight Crew Support Systems FDF. See Flight Dynamics Facility Feature Identification and Location Experiment, 1071, 1111 Federal Aviation Administration, 399 Federal budget, U.S., 317 Federal Communications Commission, 6, 776 Ferrets; defined, 1553. See also Electronic intelligence satellites FGB. See Zarya Control Module FGGE. See First GARP Global Experiment FILE. See Feature Identification and Location Experiment Fire hazards in spacecraft, 20, 38, 40, 928, 1261, 1263. See also Combustion in space “Fireflies,” 702-703, 728, 733, 738, 743 First GARP Global Experiment, 392 Fission, 1553 Flandro, Gary, 1515 Fleet Satellite Communications system (military telecommunications satellites), 762 Flight Crew Support Systems (ISS), 476 Flight Dynamics Facility, 405 Flight path, 1553 Floods of 1969 (ESSA data), 251 FLTSATCOM. See Fleet Satellite Communications system Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Experiment, 1324 Fluid mechanics, 1553 Fluid mechanics in space, 1145, 1147, 1249 Fluorescence, 1553 Flyby, 1553 FOBS. See Fractional Orbit Bombardment System Focal ratio, 1553 Food in spaceflight, 1041, 1230 Footprint, 1553 Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation, 816 Ford Corporation, 751 Forest fires sensed from space, 135, 561, 981, 1343 FORTE. See Fast On-Orbit Recording of Transient Events satellite Fra Mauro region (Moon), 84, 89, 95, 97 Fractional Orbit Bombardment System, 163 Frauenhofer lines, 1553 Free return trajectory, 65, 81, 655; defined, 1553. See also Gravity assist Freedom 7, 702, 715 Freedom space station, 466, 469, 473, 482, 921, 924 Free-flyer, 1553 Frequency, 1553 Friendship 7, 702, 727 Frisbee technique, 1140 Frogs. See Animals in space Fuel cells, 352, 582, 1016, 1296; defined, 1553; on Gemini, 348; shuttle, 1069 Fuel conservation, 739 Fuels, 580, 1448; cryogenic, 1550; hydrogen, 787; hypergolic, 36, 1555; liquid, 1406; nuclear, 819, 823. See also Propulsion; Solid-fueled rocket boosters Full-Sky Survey (EUVE), 313 Functional Cargo/Energy Block. See Zarya Control Module Funding of space programs, 23, 317, 321, 492, 503, 782, 1072, 1203, 1256, 1270, 1287, 1297, 1302, 1315, 1422 Fusion, 1553 Future X program, 916 Gabbro, 1553 Gain, 1553 Galaxies, number of, 435 Galaxy, 1553 Galaxy 3C295, 190 Galaxy Evolution Explorer, 975 Galaxy satellites, 1375 GALCIT. See Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory GALEX. See Galaxy Evolution Explorer Galileo Europa mission, 1010 Galileo Galilei, 322, 422, 1380 Galileo mission, 322, 328, 536, 608, 675, 820, 890, 1010, 1181, 1183, 1196, 1482, 1496 Gamma-ray astronomy, 1553 Gamma-ray bursts, 202, 435, 817, 993, 1208 Gamma rays, 199, 271, 296, 420, 1206, 1208; defined, 1553 Ganymede (moon of Jupiter), 325, 893, 1473, 1482, 1495 GARP. See Global Atmospheric Research Program GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment, 392 GAS experiments. See Get-Away Special experiments Gas giants, 893; Jupiter, 323. See also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus Gaspra (asteroid), 195, 326; Galileo data, 1196 GATE. See GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment GATV. See Gemini Agena Target Vehicle Geiger counter, 1554 Gegenschein, 351, 447; defined, 1553 Gemini, Project, 19, 254, 307, 318, 329, 335, 565, 574-575; military uses, 617; space suit development, 1309; Titan II, 1404 Gemini 1, 331, 336 Gemini 2, 331, 336 Gemini 3, 331, 336, 341 Gemini IV, 331, 342, 347 Gemini V, 331, 348, 353 Gemini VI, 354 Gemini VI-A, 331, 354, 359 Gemini VII, 331, 354, 359 Gemini VIII, 332, 360, 365 Gemini IX, 332, 366 Gemini IX-A, 332, 366, 370 Gemini X, 332, 366, 370 Gemini XI, 332, 371, 376 Gemini XII, 332, 371, 376 Gemini Agena Target Vehicle, 360 Gemini B, 617 Geminid meteor shower, 446 Gender diversity in the U.S. space program, 253, 258, 1159 General Dynamics, 154, 330, 366, 1312 General Electric, 169, 569, 750, 808 GEO. See Geosynchronous satellites Geocentric orbit, 1554 Geodesy, 1554 Geodesy satellite, 1554 Geodetic Earth-Orbiting Satellites, 510; GEOS 1, 379; GEOS 2, 379; GEOS 3, 134, 379 Geodetic satellites, 377 Geodynamic Earth and Oceans Satellite, 380 Geographos (asteroid), 195 Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell experiment, 1247 GEOS. See Geodetic Earth-Orbiting Satellites Geosat. See Geodynamic Earth and Oceans Satellite Geoscience Laser Altimeter System, 240 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites, 392, 751, 979-980, 984 Geostationary orbit, 1554 Geosynchronous orbits, 979, 982, 1133, 1168, 1225; defined, 1554 Geosynchronous satellites, 221, 234, 245, 451, 515, 775, 1373 Geosynchronous transfer orbit, 224 German rockets in World War II, 259 GET. See Ground-elapsed time Get-Away Special experiments, 385, 390, 406, 902, 1019, 1075, 1080, 1090, 1119, 1145, 1169, 1171, 1284, 1334 GEWEX. See Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment GFFC. See Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell experiment Giacobini-Zinner (comet), 138, 511 Gigahertz. See Hertz Giotto (spacecraft), 138 GL229B (star), 426 GLAS. See Geoscience Laser Altimeter System Glenn effect, 729, 743 Glenn L. Martin Company, 1447 Glenn Research Center, 579, 585, 780, 999 Glide path, 1554 Global Atmospheric Research Program, 391, 395, 980 Global Change Research Program, 243, 1209 Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment, 243 Global Low-Orbiting Message Relay satellite, 1142, 1154 Global Navigation Satellite System. See GLONASS satellites Global Oscillations Network Group, 988 Global Positioning System, 381, 396, 402, 799-800, 1428; military applications, 398 Global Surveyor. See Mars Global Surveyor Global warming, 771. See also Climate change Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema. See GLONASS satellites Globalstar mobile satellite system, 774 Globular clusters, 1554 GLOMR. See Global Low-Orbiting Message Relay satellite GLONASS satellites, 401, 800 Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 405 Goddard Space Flight Center, 178, 283, 403, 408, 550, 779, 999, 1314, 1413 GOES. See Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites Goldstone, California, 214 GONG. See Global Oscillations Network Group GPS. See Global Positioning System Grand Tour of the solar system, 1471, 1478, 1485, 1499, 1509, 1515 Gravitation, 1554 Gravitational constant, 1554 Gravitational field, 1554 Gravitational lenses, 517 Gravity; acceleration or force of, 1031; Earth’s, 381; Earth’s fluctuations, 800; effect on materials processing, 694 Gravity assist, 91, 182, 322, 657, 895, 1195, 1417, 1471, 1478, 1515; defined, 1554. See also Free return trajectory Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 427, 432, 1513 Great Observatories Program, 191, 204, 1002, 1206, 1302, 1384 Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 323, 431, 865, 872, 1481, 1495, 1512, 1554 Great Society programs, 620 Greenhouse effect, 1554 Greenhouse gases, 242, 771, 1240 GRO. See Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Ground Communications Facility (Deep Space Network), 214 Ground-elapsed time, 1555 Ground stations; defined, 1555 Ground stations (NASA), 554 Ground test, 1555 Grumman (aerospace company), 35, 828 GSFC. See Goddard Space Flight Center GTO. See Geosynchronous transfer orbit Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory, 532 Gulf War, 1340; oil fires, 1208 Gumdrop (Apollo 9 Command and Service Module), 57 Gyroscope, 1555 Habitation Module (ISS), 476, 483, 491, 543 Hadley Rille (Moon), 31, 101, 103 Hale-Bopp (comet), 315, 986 Halley’s comet, 138, 229, 511, 517, 535, 859, 891, 992, 1170, 1387; Vega encounters, 210 Ham (chimpanzee), 173, 725, 1314 Ham radio. See Amateur radio satellites Handheld Earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System, 1215 Handheld Maneuvering Unit, 611 Hard landing, 1555 Hatch, 1555 HCMM. See Heat Capacity Mapping Mission HEAO. See High-Energy Astronomical Observatories Heat Capacity Mapping Mission, 409, 414 Heat shields, 618, 728, 739, 1026; ablative, 35, 169, 575, 704, 709, 739, 1065, 1313, 1544; defined, 1555; heat-resistant tiles, 575. See also Heatsinks; Thermal tiles Heatsinks, 709, 1313 Helene (moon of Saturn), 1503 Heliocentric orbit, 1555 Heliopause, 1555 Helios probes, 303 Helioseismology, 985, 988 Heliosphere. See Sun Heliostats, 1382 Helium, lambda point transition of, 1215 Helium bulges, hemispheric, 267 Hellas Crater (Mars), 671 HERCULES. See Handheld Earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System Hermes (Russian shuttle system), 1166 Hertz, 1555 HESSI. See High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager HHMU. See Handheld Maneuvering Unit High-definition television, 773, 1376 High-Earth orbit, 1555 High-Energy Astronomical Observatories, 203, 415, 421, 689, 1383 High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager, 975 High Energy Transient Explorer, 847 High-gain antenna, 1555 High-Precision Tracking Experiment, 1144 High-Resolution Telescope and Spectrograph, 1151 Highly elliptical orbit, 1555 Highwater, Project, 927 Himawari 1 (Japanese satellite), 529 Hitchhiker project, 387, 1169, 1171 Hooker telescope, 422 Horizon, 1555 Horsehead nebula, 446 HPTE. See High-Precision Tracking Experiment HRTS. See High-Resolution Telescope and Spectrograph HST. See Hubble Space Telescope Hubble Space Telescope, 191, 406, 422, 429, 518, 536, 897, 1004, 1018, 1384; launch, 1200, 1202; mirror flaw, 423, 430, 438, 1204; replaceable modules, 1112; science, 430, 437; servicing missions, 438, 443, 1228, 1233, 1238, 1278, 1295 Hubble’s law, 1555 Hughes Aircraft Company, 451, 604, 750, 764, 876, 883, 1106, 1356, 1362, 1373 Hughes Communications, 763 Hughes Danbury Optical Systems, 423 Hughes Network Systems, 1376 Hughes Space and Communications Company, 1410 Hurricanes; Betsy (1965), 350; Camille (1969), 132; Esther (1961), 1400; GOES spacecraft, 980; ITOS data, 530; Jupiter, 323; Nimbus data, 810; TIROS 3 data, 1397 Huygens probe. See Cassini mission Hyakutake (comet), 140, 315, 986 Hydra A, 190 Hydrogen; intergalactic clouds, 435; on the Moon, 601 Hydrothermal vents, 938 Hygiene during spaceflight, 1042 Hyper X aircraft, 916 Hypercube, 535 Hypergolic fuel, 36, 1555 Hypergolic Maintenance and Checkout Facility (Kennedy Space Center), 179 Hypergolic Propellant Handling Facility (Kennedy Space Center), 178 Hyperion (moon of Sauturn), 1501 Hypersonic flight, 583, 786, 917, 1024-1025, 1027. See also Supersonic flight Iapetus (moon of Saturn), 1474, 1501, 1503 ICBM. See Intercontinental ballistic missiles ICE. See International Cometary Explorer Ice and snow detection from space, 242 Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite, 240 Icebergs. See Sea ice ICESat. See Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite Icewarn, Project, 980 Icing tunnel (Lewis Field), 580 ICO mobile satellite system, 774 ICSU. See International Council of Scientific Unions Ida (asteroid), 195; Galileo data, 1196 IDCSP. See Interim (or Initial) Defense Communications Satellite Project IEF. See Isoelectric Focusing IEH. See International Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker IGBP. See International Geosphere-Biosphere Program IGY. See International Geophysical Year IJPS. See Initial Joint Polar-orbiting Operational Satellite System Imaging, 1555 Imaging Compton Telescope. See COMPTEL Imaging intelligence satellites, 1340 IMCO. See Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization IMEWS. See Integrated Missile Early-Warning Satellite IMG. See Interplanetary magnetic field IML. See International Microgravity Laboratory Impact basin, 1555 Improved Crystal (spy satellite), 1339 Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder, 1435 Improved TIROS Operational System. See ITOS/NOAA meteorological satellites Inclination. See Orbital inclination Inconel-X (metal alloy), 786 Independent Verification and Validation Facility, 781 Indian National Satellites, 1090; INSAT-1B, 1094 Indonesian satellites. See Palapa satellites Indonesian spacecraft, 1134 Inertial Navigation Systems, 799 Inertial Upper Stage, 690, 1137, 1555 INF Treaty. See Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty Infrared Astronomical Satellite, 444, 449, 535, 1002-1003, 1384 Infrared astronomy, 1555 Infrared cirrus clouds, 446 Infrared Imagery of Shuttle, 1060 Infrared imaging, 60, 134, 323, 409, 414, 445, 528, 810, 1002, 1005, 1170, 1229 Infrared radiation, 1556 Infrared scanner, 1556 Infrared spectrometer, 1556 Initial Joint Polar-orbiting Operational Satellite System, 751 Inner ear, 171, 333, 480, 961, 1038, 1092, 1094 INS. See Inertial Navigation Systems INSAT-1B, 1090 Insects in space, 1077 Insertion orbit. See Orbit insertion maneuvers Instrument Pointing System, 1150 Insurers of spacecraft, 905, 1134 Integrated Missile Early-Warning Satellite, 234 Integrated Program Office, 757 Intelsat communications satellites, 135, 450, 457; Intelsat VI, 1213, 1216 Intelsat satellites, 1374 Interagency cooperation in space, 377 Intercontinental ballistic missiles, 153, 163, 234, 245, 572-573, 1345, 1403, 1440; Cold War, 1342; defined, 1556; as launch vehicles, 1312 Interferometry, 824, 1057, 1435; defined, 1556 Intergalactic medium, 1556 Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization, 1362 Interim (or Initial) Defense Communications Satellite Project, 761 Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (1988), 1347 Intermediate range ballistic missiles, 176, 220, 574, 1440; defined, 1556 International Auroral Study (1997), 976 International Cometary Explorer, 406, 510-511 International cooperation in space, 126, 131, 156, 206, 213, 225, 308, 320, 393, 467, 473, 479, 489, 530, 782, 886, 934, 983, 1095, 1159, 1249, 1286; goals for, 782, 795; Mir-shuttle missions, 1259, 1265-1266, 1272. See also Russian-U.S. space relations International Council of Scientific Unions, 391 International Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker, 1281, 1285 International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), 259, 283, 403, 686, 849, 900, 1368, 1447, 1556 International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, 243, 767 International Magnetosphere Study, 510 International Maritime Communications Act (1978), 1363 International Microgravity Laboratory-1, 1036, 1212 International Microgravity Laboratory-2, 1013, 1240 International Quiet Sun Years (1964-1965), 302 International Solar Maximum Year (1980), 990 International Solar-Polar Mission, 1416 International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Science Initiative, 304 International Space Station, 210, 1286, 1295; 1998 missions, 495, 499; 1999 missions, 500, 504; 2000 (January-June) missions, 505, 509; construction start, 1284; Crew Return Vehicles, 458, 461; design and uses, 462, 468; development, 469, 475; living and working conditions, 476, 481; modules and nodes, 482, 488; Phase I, 1270; Phase I Mir-shuttle dockings, 1262; public opinion, 498, 507; U.S. contributions, 489, 494 International Sun-Earth Explorers, 203, 230, 510, 514, 990 International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium, 1219 International Telecommunications Satellite Corporation, 1371, 1374. See also Intelsat International Ultraviolet Explorer, 515, 520, 1383 International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, 391 Internet access by satellite, 1376 Interplanetary dust and gas, 326, 627 Interplanetary magnetic field, 230 Interplanetary Monitoring Platform satellites, 510, 521, 525 Interstellar dust and gas, 315, 435, 446, 517. See also Cosmic dust Interstellar wind, 865. See also Protostellar winds; Solar wind; Stellar wind Intrepid (Apollo 12 Lunar Module), 81 Io (moon of Jupiter); Galileo mission, 325; ionosphere, 866; plasma torus, 1418; surficial lava flows, 893; volcanism, 315, 327, 432, 1249, 1473, 1481, 1494 Ion, 1556 Ionization, 1556 Ionization of Solar and Galactic Cosmic-Ray Heavy Nuclei experiment, 1146 Ionosphere (Earth’s), 228, 283, 285, 1556; holes in, 1157 Ionosphere Explorers, 283, 288 Ionospheric Direct Measurement Satellite (Explorer 8), 284 IONS. See Ionization of Solar and Galactic Cosmic-Ray Heavy Nuclei experiment IPS. See Instrument Pointing System Iran-Contra affair, 795 IRAS. See Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS-Iraki-Alcock (comet), 517 IRBM. See Intermediate range ballistic missiles Iridium mobile satellite system, 773 IRIS. See Infrared Imagery of Shuttle ISAMS. See Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder ISEE. See International Sun-Earth Explorers Ishtar Terra (Venus), 878 Iskra satellites, 8 Isoelectric focusing, 696, 1119 ISPM. See International Solar-Polar Mission ISS. See International Space Station ISTP. See International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Science Initiative Italian Space Agency, 490 ITOS/NOAA meteorological satellites, 250, 526, 531, 749, 1398; ITOS-1, 1398; ITOS-2, 1398 IUE. See International Ultraviolet Explorer IUGG. See International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics IUS. See Inertial Upper Stage IV&V. See Independent Verification and Validation Facility Janus (moon of Saturn), 1503 Japanese Experimental Module (ISS), 462, 472, 484, 491 Japanese satellites, 8, 138, 191, 203, 529, 1273 Jason Microwave Radiometer, 241 Jason-1, 241 JASPIC. See Joint American-Soviet Particle Intercalibration JATO. See Jet-assisted takeoff JAWSAT. See Joint Air Force Academy-Weber State University Satellite JEM. See Japanese Experimental Module Jet-assisted takeoff, 532 Jet engines, 579 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 217, 532, 538, 569, 594, 604, 623, 630, 636, 642, 648, 655, 779, 853, 862, 999, 1356, 1449, 1452, 1478 JGOFS. See Joint Global Ocean Flux Study JMR. See Jason Microwave Radiometer John H. Glenn Research Center. See Glenn Research Center Johnson Space Center, 145, 539, 547, 690, 779, 999, 1207, 1316 Joint Air Force Academy-Weber State University Satellite, 997, 1443 Joint American-Soviet Particle Intercalibration, 208 Joint Global Ocean Flux Study, 243 Joint Long Range Proving Ground Base, 175 JPL. See Jet Propulsion Laboratory JSC. See Johnson Space Center Jumpseat, 245 Juno rockets, 262, 569, 575, 1449 Jupiter (planet), 315, 431, 1473; atmosphere, 893, 1495; bow shock, 864, 1480, 1494; composition, 1482; Galileo mission, 322, 328, 1196; lightning, 1481; magnetic field, 1473, 1482; magnetosphere, 1420, 1496, 1499; moons, 1482, 1494-1495; Pioneer missions, 862, 869-871, 875; radiation belts, 1494; rings, 1473, 1482, 1496; Ulysses mission, 1418-1419; as vacuum cleaner, 939; Voyager 1, 1478, 1484; winds, 1481 Jupiter orbit, 1556 Jupiter rockets, 153, 176, 259, 569, 574-575 K-band, 1556 K-1 vehicle, 917 Keeler Gap (Saturn), 1502 Kelvin, 1556 Kennedy Space Center, 175, 181, 780, 999; Launch Complex, 51. See also Cape Canaveral Keplerian elements, 948 Kepler’s law of motion, 1556 Keyhole spy satellites, 234, 618, 1338, 1441; Advanced, 1340 KH satellites. See Keyhole spy satellites Kick motor, 1557 KidSat, 1278 Kilogram, 1557 Kilometer, 1557 Kinetic energy devices, 1346 Kitty Hawk (Apollo 14 Command and Service Module), 95 Knowledge, Sea of (Moon), 911 Kohoutek (comet), 517, 970 Korean Air Lines Flight 007, 400 Korean War, 1447 Kosmos satellites (Russian); biological, 173; military, 164, 234, 245 Kristall module, 1254, 1267 KSC. See Kennedy Space Center Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 15, 1060, 1383 Kuiper Belt, 433, 895 Kvant astrophysics module, 920 L1011 aircraft, 576, 974 Laboratory Module (ISS), 471, 483, 485, 491 Lacrosse spy satellites, 1340 LAGEOS I, 380, 1214 LAGEOS II, 380, 1214 Lagrangian points, 985 Laika (dog), 172, 256, 1448 Laminar Soot Processes experiment, 1280 Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act (1984), 562 Land Remote Sensing Policy Act (1992), 562 Lander, 1557 Landsat satellites, 548, 553, 944, 983; commercialization of, 902; Landsat 1, 554; Landsat 2, 554; Landsat 3, 554; Landsat 4, 554-555, 558, 1113, 1413; Landsat 5, 554-555, 558-559, 563; Landsat 6, 562; Landsat 7, 240, 559, 563, 812; military uses, 1340 Langley Field, 1312 Langley Research Center, 12, 329, 539, 564, 568, 708, 780, 999 Laser, 1557 Laser Geodynamics Satellites. See LAGEOS Laser-ranging, 1557 Laser reflector, 1557 Laser weapons, 1346 Latitude, 1557 Launch, 1557 Launch Complex 39 (Kennedy Space Center), 178 Launch complexes (Cape Canaveral, Florida), 19, 176 Launch Escape System (Apollo), 40, 1557 Launch Operations Center (Cape Canaveral, Florida), 177 Launch site, 1557 Launch vehicles, 569, 578; Atlas series, 150, 155; Delta series, 220, 227; early missiles, 175; Pegasus series, 844, 848; reusable, 915, 919; Saturn series, 926, 931; space shuttle, 1006, 1022; Titan series, 1403, 1409. See also Agena; Atlas; Centaur; Delta; Expendable launch vehicles; Juno; Pegasus; Redstone; Reusable launch vehicles; Rockets; Saturn; Shuttle; Thor; Titan; Vanguard Launch window, 1557 Launchpad, 1557 LDEF. See Long Duration Exposure Facility Leadership and America’s Future in Space (Ride), 795 Leasat system, 763; Leasat 1, 1106, 1131; Leasat 3, 763, 1152, 1160, 1164; Leasat 4, 764, 1164; Leasat 5, 764, 1199 LEO. See Low-Earth-orbiting satellites LES. See Launch Escape System Lewis Field, 579, 585, 780, 999, 1312 Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, 579 Lewis Research Center, 579, 642, 862 Liberty Bell 7, 702, 720; retrieval from ocean floor, 1303 Libya Mountains (Mars), 670 LIDAR. See Light Detection and Ranging Instrument Life; conditions for (Earth), 939; search for extraterrestrial, 936, 940 Life and Microgravity Spacelab, 1015, 1037, 1276 Life science. See Biological experiments in space Life-support system, 1557 Lifting bodies, 1006, 1023, 1025 Liftoff, 1557 Light Detection and Ranging Instrument, 663 Light-year, 1557 Lightning; Apollo 12, 80; FORTE data, 816, 1343; Jupiter, 1481; from space, 1083; STS-26, 1189; Venus, 886 Lignin experiments, 1076 Limb, 1558 Limb Ozone Retrieval Experiment, 1281 Liquid-fueled rocket booster, 1558 Lithosphere, 1558 Little Eva, 345 Little Joe rockets, 19, 41, 710, 1314 Little LEOs, 775 Litton Industries, 1306 LM. See Laboratory Module; Lunar Module LMLV. See Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicles LMS. See Life and Microgravity Spacelab Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, 330 Lockheed Martin, 401, 599, 806, 825, 1342, 1422 Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicles, 576 Loire Valley (Mars), 670 Loki (volcano on Io), 1482 Loki rocket, 533 Long Duration Exposure Facility, 1105, 1110, 1112, 1124, 1128, 1199, 1202 Long-duration spaceflight, 972, 1015, 1039, 1209, 1230; International Space Station, 1269; preparing for, 740; record holders, 1264 Long March 3 (Chinese launch vehicle), 1134 Long-range intercontinental ballistic missile, 1558 Longitude, 1558 Look angle, 1558 LORE. See Limb Ozone Retrieval Experiment Los Alamos National Laboratory, 816, 1343 Low-Earth-orbiting satellites, 775, 1558 LRC. See Langley Research Center LRICBM. See Long-range intercontinental ballistic missile LRV. See Lunar Rover LSP. See Laminar Soot Processes experiment Luminosity, 1558 Luna probes (Soviet); Luna 1, 586, 853; Luna 2, 586, 597; Luna 3, 586, 597; Luna 9, 587, 597, 1359; Luna 13, 587; Luna 16, 587; Luna 20, 588 Lunar day, 1558 Lunar Module (Apollo), 18, 35, 72, 1558 Lunar orbit, 1558 Lunar Orbiters, 19, 22, 565, 587, 593, 598, 1356 Lunar Prospector, 15, 33, 536, 588, 590, 599, 603, 891 Lunar Receiving Laboratory (JSC), 543-544 Lunar Rover (Apollo), 100, 106, 111-112, 120, 689, 1558 Lunar Roving Vehicle. See Lunar Rover Lunar Sample Building (JSC), 543 Lunar satellite, 1558 Lunokhod 1 (Soviet), 588 Lunokhod 2 (Soviet), 588 Lunokhod rovers (Soviet), 109, 309 M2-F1 (lifting body), 458, 1025 M31 galaxy, 419 M87 galaxy, 426 McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, 329, 366, 701, 1313 McDonnell Douglas (aircraft company), 492, 618, 710, 730, 1119, 1145, 1422 Mach, 1558 MAD. See Mutual assured destruction Madrid, Spain, 214 Magellan mission, 536, 604, 610, 659, 890, 1196 Magellanic Clouds, 190, 1558 Magnetic Field Satellite, 380 Magnetic fields; defined, 1558; Earth’s, 523; Jupiter’s, 1473, 1482; Mars’s, 670, 1456; Mercury’s, 659; Moon’s, 601; Saturn’s, 1474; Sun’s, 988, 1203, 1419; Uranus’s, 1475; Venus’s, 639, 658, 879 Magnetometers, 669; defined, 1558 Magnetopause (Earth’s), 510 Magnetosphere (Earth’s), 228, 510, 836, 975 Magnetotail (Earth’s), 510, 1558 Magnitude, 1558 Magnum (signal intelligence satellites), 1340 Magsat. See Magnetic Field Satellite MAHRSI. See Middle Atmosphere High Resolution Spectrograph Investigation Main sequence star, 1558 Man-in-Space-Soonest, 253 Man-in-Space Task Force, 253 Man-rating, 1558 Manifest destiny and the solar system, 794 Manned Maneuvering Unit, 307-308, 611, 616, 1008, 1061, 1102, 1105, 1111, 1117, 1131 Manned One-Day Mission (Mercury-Atlas 9), 742. See also under Mercury, Project Manned Orbiting Laboratory, 617, 622, 735, 1405, 1441 Manned Space Flight Network, 1321, 1413 Manned Spacecraft Center, 19, 145, 178, 318, 690, 1316 Mantle (Earth’s), 1558 Mapping; Earth, 377, 551, 556, 561; Mars, 651; Mercury, 214; Moon, 195, 596, 602; radar imagery, 1058; Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 1298; Venus, 15, 607; weather maps, 249 MAPS. See Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites experiment MARCI. See Mars Color Imager MARDI. See Mars Descent Imager Marecs satellites, 1363 Maria (lunar seas), 29, 86, 589, 1558 Mariner 1, 623, 629 Mariner 2, 608, 623, 629, 639, 659, 889, 988, 1291 Mariner 3, 630, 635, 652, 676 Mariner 4, 214, 630, 635, 645, 652, 676, 889, 1455 Mariner 5, 608, 628, 636, 641, 659 Mariner 6, 642, 647, 652, 676, 889, 1455 Mariner 7, 642, 647, 652, 676, 889, 1455 Mariner 8, 648, 654, 676 Mariner 9, 648, 654, 676, 683, 889, 1455 Mariner 10, 214, 608, 628, 640, 655, 661 Mariner Jupiter Saturn 77. See Voyager Program Mariner program, 534; and Viking program, 1452, 1458 Mariner R, 623, 626 Marisat system, 1362 Maritime satellites, 1362, 1367; defined, 1559 Mark 4 pressure suit, 1305 Mars; andesite on, 671; atmosphere, 431, 632, 645, 650, 652, 671, 680, 1456, 1465, 1467; canals, 633, 651; channels, 651, 670-671, 683, 1456; craters, 632, 671, 684, 1465; crust, 671, 1466; Cydonian face and controversy, 674; deserts, 645; dust storms, 650, 1455, 1459, 1464; ionosphere, 670; life on, 646, 672, 675, 684, 936, 1456, 1467; magnetic field, 670, 1456; magnetic material, 1466; Mariner missions, 630, 635, 642, 647-648, 654; moons, 652; polar ice caps, 652; popular myths, 633; redness, 1466; rocks, 670, 682, 1465; sand, 684; seismic activity, 1466; shape, 651; snow, 645; soil, 1465-1466; surface, 645; Viking missions, 1452, 1457-1458, 1470; volcanism, 651, 659, 671-672, 1464; water, 645, 670, 683, 892, 936, 1456, 1464; weather, 1466; winds, 651 Mars Climate Orbiter, 536, 662, 667, 891 Mars Color Imager, 662 Mars Descent Imager, 663 Mars Global Surveyor, 536, 608, 666, 668, 672, 684, 891 Mars missions (Soviet), 652, 676, 889, 1455 Mars-96 mission, 820 Mars Observer, 203, 536, 673, 679, 890; reasons for failure, 676 Mars orbit, 1559 Mars Orbiter Camera, 668 Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter, 668 Mars Pathfinder, 431, 536, 583, 666, 670, 680, 685, 890 Mars Polar Lander, 536, 662, 667, 805-806, 891 Mars probes (Soviet), 650 Mars Society, 904 Mars Surveyor Program, 662, 666 Mars Volatiles and Climate Surveyor, 663 Mars Voyager Program, 1452 Marshall Space Flight Center, 177, 415, 543, 686, 693, 781, 999, 1006, 1314; Challenger accident, 1178 Martin Marietta Corporation, 330, 604, 612, 1403 MAS. See Millimeter-Wave Atmospheric Sounder Mascons (Moon), 29, 601; defined, 1559 Maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), 215; defined, 1559 Mass, 1559 Mass spectrometer, 1559 Materials processing in space, 694, 700, 962, 970, 1019, 1081-1082, 1088, 1090, 1092-1093, 1119-1120, 1239, 1241; convection, 1146; defined, 1559; GAS experiments, 388; International Space Station, 486; salt, 1247; Spacehab, 1323, 1329 Materialwissenschaftliche Autonome Experiments unter Schwerelosigkist. See MAUS experiments Mathilde (asteroid), 140 Matter, 1559 Maunder minimum, 1559 MAUS experiments, 1120 Max Q (maximum dynamic pressure), 1170 Maxwell Montes (Venus), 878 Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites experiment, 1055, 1071, 1111 Measurement of Solar Constant spectrometer, 158 Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere, 239 Medical use of satellites, 133 Medium-Earth orbit, 1559 Medium-Earth-orbiting satellites, 775 MEEP. See Mir Environmental Effects Payload Megahertz. See Hertz Melnick 42 (star), 434 MEO. See Medium-Earth-orbiting satellites Mercury (planet); bow shock, 659; magnetic field, 659; Mariner 10, 655, 661; Mariner 10 flyby, 658; meteoric bombardment, 659 Mercury, Project, 143, 254, 329, 403, 539, 564, 575, 701, 707, 1312; development, 152, 708, 713; test flights, 701; Mercury-Atlas 5, 173; Mercury-Atlas 6, 702, 727, 731; Mercury-Atlas 7, 703, 732, 736; Mercury-Atlas 8, 703, 737, 741; Mercury-Atlas 9, 703, 742, 747; Mercury-Atlas launch vehicles, 153; Mercury-Atlas test flights, 724; Mercury-Redstone 2, 173, 1314; Mercury-Redstone 3, 702, 714, 719; Mercury-Redstone 4, 338, 702, 720, 726. See also Space Task Group Mercury Mark II, 329, 1316 Mercury 13, 254 Merritt Island Launch Area, 177 Mesosphere, 1559 MET (mission-elapsed time). See Ground-elapsed time Metal alloys, 694, 788, 1081, 1189 Meteor plane, 1024, 1034 Meteor satellites (Soviet), 529; METEOR 3M-1, 241 Meteorites; defined, 1559; Moon impacts, 22. See also Asteroids; Comets; Craters Meteoroid Satellite A (Explorer S-55), 290 Meteoroid Technology Satellite (Explorer 46), 291 Meteoroids; defined, 289, 1559; hazards to spacecraft, 271, 289, 292, 464 Meteorological satellites, 391, 395, 748, 755; Applications Technology Satellites, 132, 137; defined, 1559; Environmental Science Services Administration, 249, 252; ITOS/NOAA, 526, 531; Mercury-Atlas 9 contributions, 745; military, 529, 756, 760; Nimbus, 808, 813; TIROS, 1397, 1402. See also Environmental Science Services Administration satellites; ITOS/NOAA meteorological satellites; Nimbus satellites; TIROS meteorological satellites; Weather forecasting Meteors; defined, 289, 1559 Meteosat, 529 Meter, 1559 Metis (moon of Jupiter), 1496 METOP satellites, 752 Metric system, 1559 Metric ton, 1559 Mexican satellites, 1143 MGS. See Mars Global Surveyor MHV. See Miniature Homing Vehicles Michoud Assembly Facility, 781 Microgravity, 465, 581; combustion, 466, 1256, 1281, 1326; crystal growth, 130, 486, 696, 1081, 1094, 1133, 1145, 1147, 1169, 1189-1190, 1199, 1215-1216, 1222, 1229, 1241, 1248, 1280, 1282, 1327; defined, 1559; physiological effects, 210, 356, 478, 485, 739, 955, 960, 966, 971, 1019, 1036, 1040, 1090, 1092-1093, 1209, 1215, 1229, 1241, 1280. See also Zero gravity Microgravity and materials processing. See Materials processing in space Microgravity Materials Science Laboratory (Lewis Field), 581 Microgravity Science Laboratory-1, 1278 Micrometeorites; defined, 289, 1560 Micrometeoroid Explorers, 289, 294 Micrometeoroids; defined, 289, 1560; Explorer missions, 289, 294; hazards, 271, 289, 292, 464, 595, 633 Micropaleontology, 1560 Microwave Limb Sounder, 1435 Microwaves, 1560 MiDAS. See Missile Defense Alarm System Middle Atmosphere High Resolution Spectrograph Investigation, 1281 MightySat II, 1443 MILA. See Merritt Island Launch Area Military defense, 1427, 1433 Military Satellite Communications system, 764 Military satellites; attack satellites, 163, 168; defined, 1560; early-warning, 233, 238; electronic intelligence, 244-248; meteorological, 529, 756, 760; navigation, 396, 402; ocean surveillance, 824, 827; spy satellites, 1337, 1344; Strategic Defense Initiative, 1345, 1349; telecommunications, 761, 766, 1560. See also Chinese military satellites; Soviet military satellites Military Strategic and Tactical Relay System, 764 Milky Way, 190, 1560 Millimeter-Wave Atmospheric Sounder, 157 MILSATCOM. See Military Satellite Communications system Milstar. See Military Strategic and Tactical Relay System Mimas (moon of Saturn), 185, 1474 Mini Pressurized Logistics Modules (ISS), 490 Miniature Homing Vehicles, 165 Minisat-1, 846 Minitrack network, 218, 404, 1321, 1448 Minotaur launch vehicle, 904, 997, 1443 Minuteman missiles, 846, 997 Mir Environmental Effects Payload, 615, 1309 Mir Primary Expedition 18, 1266, 1272 Mir Space Station, 209, 461, 470, 482, 486, 495, 503, 920, 925, 1245; amateur radio, 950; Mir 2, 924; joint missions with the space shuttle, 1259, 1265; mishaps aboard, 1261; Progress collision, 1261, 1263 Miranda (moon of Uranus), 1508, 1512 MISR. See Multi-Angle Imaging Spectroradiometer MISS. See Man-in-Space-Soonest Missile Defense Alarm System, 233, 1337, 1441 Mission Control, 540; relations with flight crews, 47 Mission-elapsed time (MET). See Ground-elapsed time Mission specialists, 1007, 1080, 1333, 1560 Mission to Planet Earth, 156, 243, 767, 772, 1013, 1055, 1209, 1434 MLR. See Monodisperse Latex Reactor MLS. See Microwave Limb Sounder MMS. See Multimission modular spacecraft MMU. See Manned Maneuvering Unit Mobile satellite system, 773, 777 MOC. See Mars Orbiter Camera Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, 239 MODIS. See Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Moffett Field, 12, 781 MOL. See Manned Orbiting Laboratory MOLA. See Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter Molecule, 1560 Molly Brown (Gemini 3), 331, 336 MONEX. See Monsoon Experiment Monkeys. See Animals in space Monodisperse Latex Reactor, 1080, 1093, 1101, 1119, 1560 Monsoon Experiment, 392 Montreal Protocol, 771 Moon, 1560 Moon (Earth’s); age, 86, 104; albedo, 1359; atmosphere, 31, 85; bearing strength, 1359; Clementine mission, 193, 198; core, 601; craters, 22, 30, 588, 911, 1359; crust, 123, 196, 589; exploration, 18, 26, 197, 586, 592; far side, 196; formation, 22, 29, 31, 590, 601; Galileo data, 1196; hydrogen, 601; landing sites, 596; Lunar Orbiters, 593, 598; Lunar Prospector, 599, 603; maps, 596; maria, 29, 86, 589, 911; near side, 196; orange soil, 123; radioactivity, 116; Ranger program, 910, 914; rocks, 22, 29, 75, 97, 116, 123, 210, 591, 601; seismic activity, 31, 76, 85, 98, 103; and solar wind, 523; solar wind’s effect, 75, 85; structure and composition, 22, 29, 591, 601; surface, 1359; Surveyor Program, 1356, 1361; volcanism, 22, 86, 104, 601; water, 32, 75, 590, 600, 602. See also Apollo; Lunar Moon landings. See Apollo Program; Apollo 11; Apollo 12; Apollo 14; Apollo 15; Apollo 16; Apollo 17 Moonquakes. See Moon (Earth’s), seismic activity Moons (other planets). See specific names of planets and moons Moonsuit, 58. See also Space suits Moonwatch, Project, 265 MOPITT. See Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere Morelos-A, 1143 Morelos-B, 1155 Morton Thiokol, 1174; Challenger accident, 1178 Motorola Satellite Communications, 774 Mount Pinatubo, 1208, 1215, 1436-1437 Mount Wilson Observatory, 422 MPLM. See Mini Pressurized Logistics Modules MSFC. See Marshall Space Flight Center MSL. See Microgravity Science Laboratory MSS. See Multispectral Scanner Subsystem MTPE. See Mission to Planet Earth Multi-Angle Imaging Spectroradiometer, 239 Multimission modular spacecraft, 312, 990, 1123, 1128 Multispectral scanner, 1560 Multispectral Scanner Subsystem, 549, 555 Mutual assured destruction, 1345 MVACS. See Mars Volatiles and Climate Surveyor Mylar (polyester material), 1369 NACA. See National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Nanedi Valley (Mars), 670 Nanometer, 1560 NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA Advisory Council Task Force on Space Program Goals, 795 NASA Communications Division, 405 NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, 18 NASCOM. See NASA Communications Division NASP. See National AeroSpace Plane National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 12, 403, 533, 564, 708, 778, 999, 1006, 1312 National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958), 403, 534, 778, 1137, 1449 National Aeronautics and Space Act (1984), 792 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 13, 143, 403, 534, 778, 785, 1449; budgetary challenges, 317; establishment of, 253; funding, 782, 1297, 1453; pricing policies, 1223 National AeroSpace Plane, 16, 583, 786, 791, 915, 1026 National Commission on Space, 320, 792, 797 National Environmental Satellite Service, 250, 749, 981 National Geodetic Satellite Program, 378 National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1057 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 250, 555, 750, 751, 1398 National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System, 752, 757 National Reconnaissance Organization, 826 National Scientific Balloon Facility, 996 National Security Decision Directive 42, 85, 1431 National Space Policy (Reagan administration), 795 Navajo (cruise missile), 150 Naval Ocean Surveillance System, 824, 1341 Naval Research Laboratory, 259, 403, 778, 1447 Naval Space Command, 1428 Naval Space Surveillance System, 1428 Navigation satellites, 798, 803; air traffic control, 1, 5; defined, 1560; Global Positioning System, 396, 402 Navigation Technology Satellites, 799 Navsat satellites, 799, 1560 Navstar satellites, 1, 400-401, 800, 816 Navy, U.S., 377, 762, 798, 824, 1428, 1440 Navy Navigation Satellite System, 379 NBS. See Neutral Buoyancy Simulator NCOS. See National Commission on Space NEAR. See Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous, 138, 536, 891 Near-Earth objects, 138, 142 Near-Earth space, 1560 Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer, 440, 1384 NEAR Shoemaker, 138, 536 Nebula; defined, 1560. See also specific names NEO. See Near-Earth objects Neptune; color, 1475; Hubble images, 432; moons, 1473, 1514; ring arcs, 1513; rings, 1514; volcanism, 1514 Nereid (moon of Neptune), 1514 Nervous system in space, 1039 Network Operations Control Center (Deep Space Network), 214 Neurolab, 1017, 1037, 1283, 1285 Neuroscience in space, 1038 Neutral Buoyancy Simulator, 688 Neutral gas analyzer, 1560 Neutrino, 1560 Neutron, 1560 Neutron spectrometry, 601 Neutron stars, 434, 817; defined, 1560 New astronomy, 1561 New Millennium Program, 663, 804, 807 Newton, 1561 Next Generation Space Telescope, 442, 1385 NGC (planetary nebula), 434 NICMOS. See Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer Night/Day Observations from Space of Lightning experiment, 1080, 1083 Night launchings and landings, 119, 1090, 1094, 1102, 1194, 1200, 1226, 1228 Nile River, 1058 NIMA. See National Imagery and Mapping Agency Nimbus satellites, 251, 548, 554, 649, 750, 756, 808, 813, 932, 1209; Nimbus 1, 808; Nimbus 2, 750, 809; Nimbus 3, 750, 753, 809; Nimbus 4, 809; Nimbus 5, 409, 809; Nimbus 6, 810; Nimbus 7, 810, 1353 Nirgal Valley (Mars), 670 Nitrogen dioxide distribution, 1353 Nix Olympica (Mars), 651 NMP. See New Millennium Program NNSS. See Navy Navigation Satellite System NOAA. See ITOS/NOAA meteorological satellites; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Nodes of the International Space Station, 483, 491 NORAD. See North American Air Defense Command North American Air Defense Command, 234, 1427 North American Aviation, 35, 150, 220, 377, 926 North American Rockwell, 1034 Northern lights. See Auroras Northern Utah Satellite. See Nusat Nose cones, 152, 458, 574; defined, 1561 NOSL. See Night/Day Observations from Space of Lightning experiment NOSS. See Naval Ocean Surveillance System Nova Aquilae (binary star system), 1249 Novae, 517; defined, 1561 NPOESS. See National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System NSBF. See National Scientific Balloon Facility NSSS. See Naval Space Surveillance System NTP. See Nuclear Thermal Propulsion NTS. See Navigation Technology Satellites Nuclear detection satellites, 814, 818; defined, 1561 Nuclear energy, 1561 Nuclear energy in space, 819, 823; accidents, 819; reactors, 820 Nuclear propulsion, 581 Nuclear reactor, 1561 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), 234, 296, 814, 1431 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion, 820 Nuclear weapons; in orbit, 163 Nucleus, 1561 Nusat, 1142 O-rings, 1009, 1174, 1178, 1182-1183, 1189, 1561 OAMS. See Orbital Attitude and Maneuvering System OAO. See Orbiting Astronomical Observatories OAST. See Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology OAST-1, 1106 Oblateness, 1561 Oblique Wing, 15 Observation Satellite-B, 203 Occultation, 1561 Ocean Color experiment, 1071 Ocean surveillance satellites, 824, 827. See also Seasat Ocean Topography Experiment, 768, 770 Oceanography and satellite technology, 943 Oceans and climate change, 242 Odyssey (Apollo 13 Command and Service Module), 90 Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology, 1106 Office of Management and Budget, 317 Office of Manned Space Flight, 952 Office of Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance, 1179 Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications, 1069 Office of Space Science and Applications, 1076, 1088. See also OSS-1 OFO. See Orbiting Frog Otolith OFT. See Orbital Flight Test Program OGO. See Orbiting Geophysical Observatories Oil spills (satellite detection), 945 Olympus Mons (Mars), 651, 672, 1464 OMS. See Orbital maneuvering system OMSF. See Office of Manned Space Flight “One small step for [a] man” speech, 73 Oort Cloud, 1561 Open-ended missions, 339 OPF. See Orbiter Processing Facility Opposition, 1561 Optical astronomy, 422 ORBCOMM, 846 Orbit, 1561 Orbit insertion maneuvers, 66, 81 Orbital Attitude and Maneuvering System, 336, 362 Orbital Docking System, 1249 Orbital dynamics, 343 Orbital Express (launch vehicle), 903 Orbital Flight Test Program, 1060 Orbital inclination, 1561 Orbital maneuvering system, 1561 Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, 1166 Orbital Sciences Corporation, 844 Orbital transfer vehicle, 1561 Orbital Workshop, 952. See also Skylab Orbiter, Project, 259, 377 Orbiter; defined, 1562 Orbiter (shuttle), 1007. See also Shuttle Orbiter Processing Facility (Kennedy Space Center), 178-179 Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer, 1015 Orbiting Astronomical Observatories, 518, 828, 833, 1383 Orbiting Frog Otolith, 171 Orbiting Geophysical Observatories, 834 Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrograph, 1275 Orbiting Satellites Carrying Amateur Radio, 6, 548 Orbiting Solar Observatories, 303, 838, 843, 990, 993, 1383 Orbits. See Circular orbit; Elliptical orbit; Equatorial orbit; Geocentric orbit; Geostationary orbit; Geosynchronous orbits; Heliocentric orbit; High-Earth orbit; Low-Earth-orbiting satellites; Lunar orbit; Medium-Earth-orbiting satellites; Parabolic orbit; Parking orbit; Polar orbits; Prograde orbit; Retrograde orbit; Solar orbit; Sun-synchronous orbits; Synchronous orbit; Transfer orbit ORBVIEW satellites, 847 ORFEUS. See Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrograph Oriented Scintillation Spectroscopy Experiment, 201, 1385 “Original Seven” astronauts, 144 Orion (Apollo 16 Lunar Module), 112 Orion nebula, 190, 433, 446; Hubble images, 426, 431 OSCAR. See Orbiting Satellites Carrying Amateur Radio OSO. See Orbiting Solar Observatories OSS-1 (scientific payload), 1076, 1082 OSSE. See Oriented Scintillation Spectroscopy Experiment OSTA. See Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications OSTA-1 (scientific payload), 1070 OSTA-2 (scientific payload), 1088, 1093 OSTA-3 (scientific payload), 1108 OTV. See Orbital transfer vehicle Outer space, 1562 Outer Space Treaty (1967), 163, 1431 Outgassing, 1562 OV-101. See Enterprise (shuttle prototype) OWS. See Orbital Workshop Ozma, Project, 937 Ozone depletion, 158, 160, 242, 771, 811, 983, 1013, 1208, 1242, 1353, 1434, 1437; U.S.-Soviet studies, 210 Ozone distribution, 1353 Ozone layer, 1562 P/Tempel 1 (comet), 139 P/Tempel 2 (comet), 446 Pace Station Task Force, 473 PACS. See Particle-Analysis Camera System PAGEOS. See Passive Geodetic Earth-Orbiting Satellite Palapa satellites, 1088, 1109, 1116, 1119, 1130-1131, 1134 Pale Face (chimpanzee), 1337 PAM. See Payload Assist Modules PanAmSat Corporation satellites, 1376 Pandora (moon of Saturn), 1488 PANSAT. See Petite Amateur Naval Satellite Panspermia, 1562 Parabolic orbit, 1562 Parafoil, 460 Parallax, 1562 PARD. See Pilotless Aircraft Research Division Parkes, Australia, radio astronomy facility, 217 Parking orbit, 1562 Parsec, 1562 Particle-Analysis Camera System, 1170 Passive experiment, 1562 Passive Geodetic Earth-Orbiting Satellite, 379 Passive relay satellites, 1368, 1372-1373; defined, 1562 Pathfinder. See Mars Pathfinder Pathfinder rocket plane, 916 Patrick Air Force Base, 175 Payload, 1562 Payload Assist Modules, 223, 571, 1105, 1110, 1119, 1155, 1158, 1164, 1168; defined, 1562 Payload bay, 1562 Payload Operation Integration Center, 489 Payload operations control centers, 1413 Payload specialists, 1007, 1106, 1333; defined, 1562 PDP. See Plasma Diagnostics Package Pegasus (satellite), 927 Pegasus Communications Corporation, 1376 Pegasus launch vehicles, 844, 848, 997 Pegsat, 844 Periapsis, 1562 Pericynthion, 1562 Perigee, 1562 Perihelion, 1562 Perilune, 1562 Period, 1562 Perkin-Elmer Corporation, 423, 444 Personnel of the U.S. space program, 253, 258. See also Astronauts Perth, Australia, 728 Peterson Air Force Base, 1428 Petite Amateur Naval Satellite, 1289 Phobos (moon of Mars), 652, 1463-1464 Phobos missions (Soviet), 203, 209, 677, 1468 Phoebe (moon of Saturn), 183 Phoenix, Project, 937 Photochemistry, 278 Photographs from space, 373, 411, 593, 656, 677, 704, 729, 734, 742, 744-745, 896, 970, 981, 1111, 1121, 1360, 1460-1461, 1466 Photometer, 1562 Photomultiplier, 1562 Photon, 1563 Photopolarimeter, 1563 Photoreconnaissance, 1563 Photoreconnaissance satellites. See Spy satellites Photosphere. See Sun Photovoltaic cells, 536, 583; defined, 1563. See also Solar power Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids experiment, 1153, 1164 Pilot training, 542 Pilotless Aircraft Research Division, 1312 Pioneer 0, 849 Pioneer 1, 586, 849 Pioneer 2, 586, 850 Pioneer 3, 534, 850 Pioneer 4, 534, 586, 851 Pioneer 5, 851 Pioneer 6, 856, 861 Pioneer 7, 856, 861 Pioneer 8, 512, 856, 861 Pioneer 9, 856, 861 Pioneer 10, 14, 862, 869, 873, 889 Pioneer 11, 14, 186, 870, 875, 889 Pioneer E, 856, 861 Pioneer Venus 1, 14, 203, 608, 628, 876, 882, 890 Pioneer Venus 2, 14, 203, 628, 883, 888, 890 Pioneering the Space Frontier: The Report of the National Commission on Space, 794 Pitch, roll, and yaw, 1563 Pixel, 1563 PKS 0637-72 (quasar), 190 Planetary debris disks, 1003 Planetary exploration, 889, 894 Planetary satellite, 1563 Planets; defined, 1563 Planets, extrasolar, 431 Plants in space, 1076, 1241, 1280, 1327 Plasma, 1563 Plasma Diagnostics Package, 1152 Plasma sheath, 1563 Plate tectonics, 1563 Pluto; atmosphere, 897; composition, 897; Hubble images, 432; planetesimals, 892; water, 897 Pluto-Kuiper Express, 895, 899 Plutonium, 819 PMIRR. See Pressure Modulator Infrared Radiometer POES. See Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite system Pogo effect, 39-40, 64, 1404, 1407, 1563 POIC. See Payload Operation Integration Center Polar Lander. See Mars Polar Lander Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite system, 752 Polar orbits, 529, 548, 799, 808, 1440, 1563 Polarimeter, 1563 Polaris missiles, 153, 164, 175, 178 Pole, 1563 Politics and the space program, 318, 1297. See also Cold War; Funding of space programs; Russian-U.S. space relations; Space race Pollution. See Atmospheric polluton Posigrade, 1563 Pound, 1563 Power sources; solar, 536, 581; tethered satellite systems, 1395 Precession, 1563 Precision Recovery Including Maneuvering Entry project, 1025 Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident. See Rogers Commission Presidential Directive DD-37, 1431 Pressure Modulator Infrared Radiometer, 662 Pressure suits, 1305 PRIME. See Precision Recovery Including Maneuvering Entry project Private industry, 900, 1323. See also Commercial use of space Probes (uncrewed interplanetary spacecraft), 889, 894 Prograde orbit, 1564 Progress freighters (Russian), 921, 1264 Project. See project name Prometheus (moon of Saturn), 1488 Prominences, solar, 840, 988 Propellants. See Fuels Proplyds, 426 Propulsion, 1406; development of, 532, 579; electric, 581; experimental, 691; integral, 763; jet, 787; nuclear, 581, 820 Propulsion system, 1564 Protein crystal growth. See Crystal growth Proton, 1564 Proton boosters (Russian), 500, 505 Protoplanetary disks, 426 Protostellar winds, 1003 PSR 0540-69 (pulsar), 190 Public opinion of the space program, 1066 Puck (moon of Uranus), 1506 Pulsars, 190, 418, 420, 433, 1564 PVTOS. See Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids Quarantining astronauts, 543 Quarks, 1564 Quasars, 418, 434, 1387, 1564 Radar, 1564 Radar imaging, 604, 1055, 1059, 1241; military uses, 1340 Radiation. See Electromagnetic radiation; Electromagnetic spectrum; Gamma rays; Radiation in spacecraft; Ultraviolet astronomy; X rays Radiation in spacecraft, 704, 745, 1157 Radiation sensors, 251 Radio astronomy; defined, 1564; Explorers, 272, 295, 299; RAE-A (Explorer 38), 295; RAE-B (Explorer 49), 295; Saturn, 1486; search for extraterrestrial life, 936 Radio communications, 6, 11. See also Amateur radio Radio emissions, 976 Radio satellites (Soviet), 7 Radio telescope, 1564 Radioisotopic thermal (or thermoelectric) generators, 83, 819, 1417, 1564 Radiometers, 753; defined, 1564 Rains, Sea of (Moon), 97, 100, 103 Ramjets, 787 RAND Corporation, 1337, 1403 Ranger program, 32, 76, 534, 586, 590, 596, 623, 889, 910, 914;  Ranger 6, 911;  Ranger 7, 911;  Ranger 8, 911;  Ranger 9, 911 Ranging experiments (Mariner 5), 637 RBV. See Return beam vidicon RCA (satellite contractor), 228, 748, 752, 1373 RCS. See Reaction Control System Reaction Control System (shuttle), 1070 Real time, 1565 Real-time data gathering, 982 Reconnaissance satellite, 1565 Recreation in space, 1044 Red dwarfs, 427, 434 Red giant, 1565 Red Planet, 1565 Redshift, 1565 Redstone rockets, 259, 569, 574, 701, 714. See also under Mercury, Project Reentry into Earth’s atmosphere, 35, 52, 68, 83, 336, 363, 372, 458, 708, 744, 1024, 1065, 1071, 1565 Reflecting telescope, 1565 Refracting telescope, 1565 Regolith, 1565 Relativity, 1565; general theory of, 1465 Relay satellites, 1371, 1373 Remote Manipulator System (shuttle), 1018, 1070, 1072, 1075, 1080, 1163, 1165; defined, 1565 Remote sensing, 811; defined, 1565; Earth observation, 14, 134, 235, 239, 243, 409; Mars imaging, 632; meteorological, 391; radar imaging, 1055, 1059; satellites, 902; spy satellites, 235. See also Infrared imaging; Radar imaging Rendezvous, 1565 Rendezvous and docking maneuvers, 34, 59, 67, 95, 126, 329, 332, 343-344, 352, 354, 361, 363, 367-368, 371, 473, 1013, 1112, 1130; Mir-shuttle, 1246, 1248, 1254, 1266 Rendezvous evaluation pod (Gemini V), 349 Repairs of satellites, in-orbit, 1165 Research satellite, 1565 Resolution, 1565 Restart, 1565 Retrofire, 1565 Retrograde orbit, 1565 Retroreflector, 1565 Retrorocket, 1565 Return beam vidicon, 549, 1565 Reusable launch vehicles, 903, 915, 919, 1023, 1034; Pegasus series, 844, 848; space shuttle, 1006, 1022; X-37, 691 Revolution, 1566 Rhyolite satellites, 245 Rille, 1566 Rings; Jupiter, 1473, 1482, 1496; Neptune, 1514; Saturn, 185, 872, 893, 1474, 1489, 1499, 1502-1503; Uranus, 1474, 1508-1509 Ritchey-Chrétien telescope, 1381 RMS. See Remote Manipulator System Robot arm, 1566 Robotics, 478, 1327, 1566 Roche limit, 1566 Rocket booster, 1566 Rocketdyne, 220, 492 Rockets, 150. See also Launch vehicles Rockwell International, 1029, 1034, 1168, 1222, 1422 Roentgen X-Ray Satellite, 191, 315 Rogallo wing, 330 Rogers Commission, 1175-1177, 1185, 1187 Roll. See Pitch, roll, and yaw Roller-coaster maneuver, 35 Rollout, 1566 ROSAT. See Roentgen X-Ray Satellite Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer, 274 Rotary Rocket Company, 904 Roton (SSTO vehicle), 917 Roton ATV (atmospheric test vehicle), 904 RSA. See Russian Space Agency RTG. See Radioisotopic thermal (or thermoelectric) generators Russian Space Agency, 462, 469, 483, 489, 500, 505, 921 Russian-U.S. space relations, 126, 131, 206, 213, 467, 652, 886, 1159, 1249, 1256, 1259, 1265-1266, 1272, 1283, 1345, 1349; economic setbacks, 495, 503. See also Cold War; International cooperation in space; Space race RX space suits, 1306 SAFER. See Simplified Aid for Extravehicular Activity Rescue SAGE. See Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Sagittarius A*, 190 SAINT. See Satellite Interceptors Sakigake (spacecraft), 138 SALT. See Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and Treaties Salyut space station (Soviet), 473, 486, 1264 Salyut space tugs (Soviet), 483 SAM. See Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement instrument Sam (rhesus monkey), 710 SAMOS spy satellites, 244, 1338, 1441, 1444 SAMPEX. See Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer Sample return mission, 1566 SAREX. See Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment SAS-2. See Explorer 48; Small Astronomy Satellites Satcom satellites, 1155, 1168, 1171, 1375 Satellite-Aided Tracking, 983 Satellite and Missile Observation System. See SAMOS spy satellites Satellite Business Systems satellites, 1081, 1107, 1375 Satellite Control Facility (U.S. Air Force), 1079 Satellite Data Relay Network, 1413 Satellite Data System (military telecommunications satellites), 245, 763 Satellite Early-Warning System, 1429 Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, 133 Satellite Interceptors, 164 Satellites; artificial, 1545; defined, 1566; mobility of, 135; total energy of, 266. See also specific names and types Satnav system, 799 Saturn (planet); atmosphere, 1473, 1489, 1499; bow shock, 1486, 1500; Cassini Division, 1502; Cassini mission, 182, 187; Encke Division, 1502; Hubble images, 432; Keeler Gap, 1502; magnetic field, 1474; magnetosphere, 1489, 1500; moons, 185, 1473-1474, 1488, 1500-1501; Pioneer missions, 870, 872, 875; rings, 185, 872, 893, 1474, 1489, 1499, 1502-1503; Voyager 1, 1485, 1491; weather, 1502 Saturn launch vehicles, 36, 573, 576, 687, 926, 931; Saturn I, 926; Saturn IB, 19, 36, 45, 928; Saturn V, 18, 39, 64, 80, 89, 574, 928 SBI. See Space-based interceptors SBUV. See Solar Backscattered Ultraviolet instrument SB-WASS. See Space Based Wide Area Surveillance System SCA. See Shuttle Carrier Aircraft Scanning radiometry, 410; defined, 1566 Scarp, 1566 Scatterometers, 943 Schools and the space program, 950, 1077, 1219, 1326 Schwarzschild radius, 1566 Schwassmann-Wachmann-3 (comet), 139 Scientific satellite, 1566 Scooby Doo (Martian rock), 683 Scooter (Neptunian storm), 1513. See also Great Dark Spot Score (military communications satellite), 761 Score, Project, 152 Scout launch vehicles, 265, 564, 573 Scramjets, 787 SDI. See Strategic Defense Initiative SDIO. See Strategic Defense Initiative Organization SDRN. See Satellite Data-Relay Network SDS. See Satellite Data System Sea ice, 529, 943; mapping, 810 Sea level, 770 Search and rescue satellites, 207, 932, 935, 1399 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Institute, 937 Seas, lunar. See Maria; specific names Seasat, 535, 551, 941, 946 SECOR satellites, 400 Sedimentation, 694 SEDS. See Small Expendable Deployer System Seismic activity, 1566 Seismometer, 1566 Selenography, 1566 Selenology, 1566 SEM. See Space Environment Monitor; Space Experiment Module SEPS. See Space Experiments with Plasmas in Space Service Module (Apollo), 35, 45, 51, 72. See also Command and Service Module Service Propulsion System (Apollo), 36, 45, 72; defined, 1566 SETII. See Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Institute Seven. See “Original Seven” SEWS. See Satellite Early-Warning System SFRB. See Solid-fueled rocket boosters Sheath and Wake Charging experiments, 1079 Shipboard Inertial Navigation System, 799 Shoemaker-Levy 9 (comet), 892, 1196; Jupiter impact, 323, 425, 431 Shroud, 1566 Shuttle; vs. other aircraft, 786; ancestors of, 1023, 1028; approach and landing test flights, 1029, 1035; astronauts, 147; auxiliary power units, 1063, 1069, 1075; birth and development, 1006, 1022; cost-benefit analysis, 317; differences from previous spaceflight, 255; drag chutes, 1215; external tank, 1006, 1062, 1552; fuel cells, 1069; Johnson Space Center involvement, 541; landing sites, 1120; landings, 1033, 1065; Langley involvement, 565; as a launch vehicle, 576; life science laboratories, 1036, 1040; living accommodations, 1041, 1048; main engines, 1107, 1568; microgravity laboratories and payloads, 1049, 1054; numbering system, 1105, 1121; orbiter, 1007; payload bay doors, 1064; physical description, 574; radar imaging, 1055, 1059; Reaction Control System, 1064, 1070; Remote Manipulator System, 1070, 1075, 1080; as reusable launch vehicle, 915; safety issues, 1179, 1183, 1189, 1423, 1443; solid-fueled rocket boosters, 574, 620, 690, 1007, 1177; thermal tiles, 1029, 1061, 1078, 1222 Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment, 947, 951, 1279 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, 1030 Shuttle glow, 1082-1083, 1092, 1334 Shuttle Imaging Radar, 535, 1071, 1566 Shuttle Landing Facility (Kennedy Space Center), 178-179 Shuttle-Mir joint missions, 470, 486, 490, 1259, 1265-1266, 1272-1274, 1278-1279. See also Mir Space Station Shuttle Mission Simulators, 541 Shuttle mission STS-1, 1007, 1060, 1068-1069 Shuttle mission STS-2, 1008, 1069, 1074 Shuttle missions, 1982, 1075 Shuttle mission STS-3, 1008, 1019, 1075 Shuttle mission STS-4, 1078 Shuttle mission STS-5, 1080 Shuttle missions, 1983, 1087 Shuttle mission STS-6, 1087, 1099, 1104, 1411 Shuttle mission STS-7, 1087 Shuttle mission STS-8, 256, 1089 Shuttle mission STS-9, 1019, 1090 Shuttle missions, 1984, 1105, 1115 Shuttle mission STS 41-B, 256, 612, 1008, 1105, 1116, 1122 Shuttle mission STS 41-C, 612, 992, 1008, 1105, 1123, 1129 Shuttle mission STS 41-D, 1106 Shuttle mission STS 41-G, 1107, 1138 Shuttle mission STS 51-A, 613, 1109, 1130, 1136 Shuttle missions, January-June, 1985, 1137, 1149 Shuttle missions, July-December, 1985, 1150, 1162 Shuttle mission STS 51-C, 246, 256, 1137 Shuttle mission STS 51-D, 1139 Shuttle mission STS 51-B, 1142 Shuttle mission STS 51-G, 1143 Shuttle mission STS 51-F, 1150 Shuttle mission STS 51-I, 1152, 1163, 1167 Shuttle mission STS 51-J, 1153. See also Challenger accident Shuttle mission STS 61-A, 1153 Shuttle mission STS 61-B, 1154 Shuttle missions, 1986-1988, 1181, 1186 Shuttle mission STS 61-C, 1168, 1172 Shuttle mission STS 51-L, 256, 1008, 1134, 1173, 1180 Shuttle mission STS-26, 1010, 1187, 1192, 1412 Shuttle mission STS-27, 1412 Shuttle missions, 1989, 1193, 1198 Shuttle mission STS-29, 1010, 1193, 1412 Shuttle mission STS-30, 1010, 1193 Shuttle mission STS-28, 1194 Shuttle mission STS-34, 1194 Shuttle mission STS-33, 1194 Shuttle mission STS-32, 1010, 1199 Shuttle mission STS-36, 1200, 1340 Shuttle mission STS-31, 1010, 1200 Shuttle mission STS-41, 1010, 1201 Shuttle mission STS-38, 1202, 1340 Shuttle mission STS-35, 1010, 1201 Shuttle missions, 1991, 1206, 1211 Shuttle mission STS-37, 199, 1011, 1206 Shuttle mission STS-39, 1011, 1207 Shuttle mission STS-40, 1036, 1207 Shuttle mission STS-43, 1011, 1207 Shuttle mission STS-48, 1208, 1434 Shuttle mission STS-44, 1208 Shuttle missions, 1992, 1212, 1218 Shuttle mission STS-42, 1036, 1212 Shuttle mission STS-45, 156, 1212 Shuttle mission STS-49, 1011, 1213, 1219, 1224 Shuttle mission STS-50, 1011, 1213 Shuttle mission STS-46, 1011, 1214, 1393 Shuttle mission STS-47, 1214 Shuttle mission STS-52, 1011, 1214 Shuttle mission STS-53, 1011, 1214 Shuttle missions, 1993, 1225, 1232 Shuttle mission STS-54, 1011-1012, 1225, 1412 Shuttle mission STS-56, 156, 1012, 1225 Shuttle mission STS-55, 1012, 1227 Shuttle mission STS-57, 1011-1012, 1227, 1324 Shuttle mission STS-51, 1011, 1227 Shuttle mission STS-58, 1012, 1228 Shuttle mission STS-61, 424, 438, 1012, 1200, 1228, 1233, 1238 Shuttle missions, 1994, 1239, 1244 Shuttle mission STS-60, 1012, 1239, 1325 Shuttle mission STS-62, 1012, 1239 Shuttle mission STS-59, 1012, 1240 Shuttle mission STS-65, 1013, 1240 Shuttle mission STS-64, 1013, 1240 Shuttle mission STS-68, 1013, 1056, 1241 Shuttle mission STS-66, 157, 1241 Shuttle mission STS-63, 1013, 1245, 1253, 1258, 1325 Shuttle mission STS-67, 1013, 1245 Shuttle mission STS-71, 1013, 1246, 1259, 1266, 1272 Shuttle mission STS-70, 1014, 1246, 1412 Shuttle mission STS-69, 1014, 1247 Shuttle mission STS-73, 1014, 1247 Shuttle mission STS-74, 1014, 1248, 1259, 1270 Shuttle missions, 1996, 1273, 1277 Shuttle mission STS-72, 1014, 1273 Shuttle mission STS-75, 1273, 1394 Shuttle mission STS-76, 1259, 1273 Shuttle mission STS-77, 1274 Shuttle mission STS-78, 1015, 1037, 1274 Shuttle mission STS-79, 1015, 1260, 1274 Shuttle mission STS-80, 1015, 1274 Shuttle missions, 1997, 1278, 1282, 1364 Shuttle mission STS-81, 1015, 1260, 1278 Shuttle mission STS-82, 439, 1015, 1278 Shuttle mission STS-83, 1016, 1278 Shuttle mission STS-84, 1016, 1261, 1279 Shuttle mission STS-94, 1016, 1279-1280 Shuttle mission STS-85, 1016, 1279 Shuttle mission STS-86, 1016, 1261, 1279 Shuttle mission STS-87, 1016, 1280 Shuttle missons, 1998, 1283, 1287 Shuttle mission STS-89, 1016, 1262, 1283 Shuttle mission STS-90, 1037, 1283 Shuttle mission STS-91, 1017, 1283 Shuttle mission STS-95, 1017, 1283, 1288, 1293, 1326 Shuttle mission STS-88, 387 Shuttle mission STS-88, 210, 496, 1017, 1284 Shuttle missions, 1999, 1294, 1299 Shuttle mission STS-96, 501, 1018, 1294, 1326 Shuttle mission STS-93, 257, 1018, 1295, 1300, 1304 Shuttle mission STS-103, 440, 1018, 1295 Shuttle mission STS-99, 1018, 1057, 1298 Shuttle mission STS-101, 506, 1018 Shuttle mission STS-92, 471 Shuttle mission STS-106, 389 Shuttle missions; International Space Station, 492; 1990, 1199, 1205; 1995, 1245, 1252 Shuttle Ozone Limb Sounding Experiment, 1281 Shuttle Pallet Satellite; SPAS-01, 1089; SPAS-01A, 1105, 1117, 1120 Shuttle-Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy. See SPARTAN Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 1057 Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet spectrometers, 158 Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, 1077, 1081, 1083 SI units, 1567 S-IB. See Saturn launch vehicles, Saturn IB SigInt. See Signal Intelligence Satellites Sigma Sagitarii (star), 1513 Sigma 7, 703, 737, 741 Signal intelligence satellites, 1138, 1340 Signal-to-noise ratio, 215 Simplified Aid for Extravehicular Activity Rescue, 614, 1017, 1309 Simulators, 541 Single-stage-to-orbit vehicles, 786, 915, 1026 SINS. See Shipboard Inertial Navigation System Sinus Meridiani (Mars), 671 SIR. See Shuttle Imaging Radar SIR-C/X-SAR. See Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar Sirio (Italian satellite), 455 SIRTF. See Space Infrared Telescope Facility SITE. See Satellite Instructional Television Experiment Skyhook report, 1392 Skyhook systems. See Tethered satellite systems Skylab Medical Experiments Altitude Test, 1089 Skylab Program, 303, 319, 473, 486, 689, 924, 952, 957; accidents, 308; Skylab 1, 929, 954; Skylab 2, 309, 954, 958, 963, 1264; Skylab 3, 955, 964, 968; Skylab 4, 969, 973 Sleeping in space, 1044-1045 SLF. See Shuttle Landing Facility SLV (satellite launch vehicle) missions. See Vanguard, Project SLWT. See Super Lightweight External Tank Small Astronomy Satellites, 203, 273, 275 Small Expendable Deployer System, 1393-1394 Small Explorer program, 846, 974, 978 SMEAT. See Skylab Medical Experiments Altitude Test SMEX. See Small Explorer program SMEX-Lite program, 975 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 265 SMM. See Solar Maximum Mission SMS. See Synchronous Meteorological Satellites SNAPs. See Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power SNAPSHOT mission, 819 Snark missile, 175 SNOE. See Student Nitric Oxide Explorer Snoopy (Apollo 10 Lunar Module), 64 SOFBALL. See Structure of Flame Balls at Low Lewis Number experiment Soft landings; defined, 1567; Mars, 1454; Moon, 1356; Moon (Soviet), 309; Venus, 628 SOHO. See Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Sojourner (Mars rover), 681, 891 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, 985, 989 Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer, 974 Solar array, 1567 Solar Backscattered Ultraviolet instrument, 1353 Solar cell, 1567 Solar constant, 1567 Solar cycle, 160, 268, 302, 521, 838, 988; defined, 1567 Solar flares, 633, 839-840, 860, 971, 976, 993; defined, 1567 Solar flux, 280 Solar mass, 1567 Solar Maximum Mission, 203, 304, 990, 995, 1112, 1117, 1384; repairs, 1102, 1106, 1123 Solar Mesosphere Explorer, 534 Solar Optical Universal Polarimeter, 1151 Solar orbit, 1567 Solar-photovoltaic development, 536 Solar power, 581. See also Photovoltaic cells Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment, 241 Solar rotation, 872 Solar sailing, 656 Solar Spectrum Measurement, 158 Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment, 241, 1435 Solar system, 1567; as human habitat, 794 Solar system escape trajectory, 1567 Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor, 159, 1151, 1435 Solar wind, 75, 85, 230, 510, 512, 523, 626, 639, 670, 840, 860, 865, 986, 988, 1203, 1291, 1567; cycle, 1419; velocity, 1420 SOLCON. See Measurement of Solar Constant spectrometer Solid-Fueled Rocket Booster Processing Facilities (Kennedy Space Center), 179 Solid-fueled rocket boosters, 574, 620, 690, 1007, 1567; failure of, 1177 Solid Motor Assembly Building (Cape Canaveral, Florida), 177 Solid propellant, 1568 Solrad Explorers, 272, 300, 305; Solrad 1 (Explorer 30), 300; Solrad 2 (Explorer 37), 301; Solrad 10 (Explorer 44), 302 SOLSE. See Shuttle Ozone Limb Sounding Experiment SOLSPEC. See Solar Spectrum Measurement SOLSTICE. See Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment Sonar, 1568 SORCE. See Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Sounding rockets, 532, 999; defined, 1568 Sounding sensors, 753; defined, 1568 SOUP. See Solar Optical Universal Polarimeter South Atlantic Anomaly, 464 Southwest Ultraviolet Imaging System, 1302 Soviet military satellites, 163, 168, 244 Soviet Space System for Search of Vessels in Distress. See COSPAS/SARSAT Soviet-U.S. space relations. See Cold War; Russian-U.S. space relations; Space race Soyuz spacecraft (Russian), 459, 1027 Space adaptation syndrome. See Space sickness Space age, 1568 Space-based interceptors, 1346 Space Based Wide Area Surveillance System, 825, 1341 Space capsule; defined, 1568 Space capsule (Mercury program), 708 Space centers and launch sites, 996, 1001; defined, 1568 Space Communications Company, 1410 Space debris, 292, 501, 826, 845, 1209, 1377 Space Defense Operations Center, 1429 Space elevators, 1391 Space Environment Monitor, 1399 Space Experiment Module, 389 Space Experiments with Plasmas in Space, 1079 Space exploration, national goals, 792, 797 Space Exploration Day, 1460 Space Habitat Module. See Spacehab Space Infrared Telescope Facility, 191, 1002, 1005, 1386 Space medicine, 1568 Space planes, 915, 919, 1023; National AeroSpace Plane, 786, 791 Space race (U.S.-Soviet), 18, 54, 61, 69, 126, 233, 309, 345, 403, 590, 714, 724, 735, 740, 778, 929, 1026, 1184, 1568. See also Cold War; Russian-U.S. space relations Space Radar Laboratories; SRL-1, 1012, 1055, 1240; SRL-2, 1013, 1056 Space Science Board, 1478 Space shuttle. See Shuttle Space Shuttle: An American Adventure, The (film), 1117 Space sickness, 60, 966, 1019, 1043-1044, 1081, 1083, 1090, 1093-1094, 1139, 1230, 1276; defined, 1568 Space Station Control Center, 489 Space Station Remote Manipulator System (ISS), 471, 484 Space stations, 1568. See also Freedom space station; International Space Station; Mir Space Station; Salyut space station; Skylab Space suits, 41, 306, 308, 355, 1043, 1061, 1101, 1249, 1275; Apollo Program, 1306; defined, 1568; development, 1305, 1311; extravehicular activity, 1307; mobility systems, 1306; shuttle program, 1307. See also Clothing in space; Extravehicular Mobility Units; Manned Maneuvering Unit Space Surveillance Network, 1429 Space Task Group, 319, 329, 539, 708, 714, 1312, 1318, 1441 Space Technology and Research Students Program, 1326 Space Technology Laboratories, 805, 850 Space Telescope. See Hubble Space Telescope Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph, 1384 Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network, 839, 1321, 1413 Space Transportation Association, 903 Space Transportation Program Office, 915 Space Transportation System. See Shuttle Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar, 1055 Spacecom. See Space Communications Company Spacecraft, 1568 Spacecraft Center, 539 Spacecraft Technology Reentry Tests, 1025 Spaceflight endurance, 351, 356. See also Long-duration spaceflight Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network, 218, 404, 839, 1319, 1322 Spacehab, 502, 507, 1012, 1280, 1283, 1289, 1323, 1329; SH-1, 1324; SH-2, 1239, 1325; SH-3, 1256 Spacelab, 173, 690, 1008, 1017, 1019, 1036, 1069, 1091, 1094-1095, 1102, 1207, 1330, 1336, 1412; SL D-1, 1153, 1157, 1227; SL D-2, 1154, 1227; SL-2, 1150; SL-3, 2, 1142, 1145; SL-J, 1011, 1214; SLS-1, 1036 Spacenaut, 1568 Spaceport Florida Authority, 906 Spaceport Systems International, 904, 997, 1443 Spacewalks. See Extravehicular activity Spadoc. See Space Defense Operations Center SPARTAN, 988, 1014, 1144, 1146, 1241, 1256, 1274-1275, 1281-1282, 1285, 1289 SPAS. See Shuttle Pallet Satellite Spectrographs, 515; defined, 1568 Spectrometer, 1568 Spectroscope, 1568 Spectroscopy, 1569 Spectrum, 1569 Spicules, solar, 1159 Spider (Apollo 9 Lunar Module), 57 Spike, Project, 165 Spin axis, 1569 Spin stabilization, 1376, 1569 Spiral galaxy, 1569 Splashdown, 1569 SPS. See Service Propulsion System; Standard Positioning Service Sputnik 1, 126, 143, 151, 166, 206, 211, 233, 283, 309, 403, 778, 798, 1448 Sputnik 2, 172, 1448 Sputnik 5, 173 Spy satellites, 163, 165, 234, 617, 1208, 1337, 1344; ocean surveillance, 824, 827; Vandenberg Ai