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USA in Space, 3rd Edition Apollo 13 Date: April 11 to April 17, 1970 Type of Mission: Crewed lunar landing The third scheduled lunar landing of the Apollo Program, Apollo 13 was destined never to reach its goal. An explosion on board the spacecraft caused the landing to be aborted, and instead the crew used its Lunar Module as a lifeboat. Summary of the Mission While much of the world paid little attention to the start of Apollo 13, events transpired during the flight to make it one of the most dramatic and difficult missions of the entire American crewed space effort. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) itself later termed the flight the most “successful failure” it had ever had. Apollo 13 followed the Projects Mercury and Gemini, four successful Earth- and lunar-orbital Apollo missions, and the lunar-landing flights of Apollos 11 and 12. Its mission, the longest and most complex to date, was to use the standard Apollo Command and Service Module (CSM) and Lunar Module (LM) to explore the Fra Mauro crater and its environs, a sprawling, mountainous region below the equator on the near side of the Moon, the side that always faces the Earth. Once on the Moon, the astronauts were to conduct two extravehicular activities (EVAs), or “moonwalks,” to gather rock and dirt samples from an area of the surface that was suspected of having been formed by volcanic activity billions of years before. Scientists believed that studying the formation of this older area of the Moon would provide a clearer picture of Earth’s own origins. The crew for Apollo 13 was commanded by James A. Lovell, a veteran of the Gemini VII and XII missions and of the first crewed lunar-orbital mission, Apollo 8. At the time of the Apollo 13 mission, Lovell had spent 572 hours in space, more than any other living human being. His crew on the Apollo 13 flight was to include rookie astronauts Fred W. Haise, as lunar module pilot, and Thomas K. Mattingly, as Command Module pilot. The backup crew consisted of John W. Young, veteran of Gemini III, Gemini X, and Apollo 10, along with John L. Swigert and Charles M. Duke. Less than a week before the April 11, 1970, launch date, however, backup crew member Duke was unknowingly exposed to German measles at the home of a friend. At the time, primary and backup crews received identical training, often together. Thus, when Duke returned to his training schedule, he exposed the other members of both crews. Within a short time, Duke himself came down with the virus, and NASA doctors tested the other astronauts for immunities. Mattingly, the primary Command Module pilot, who did not have such an immunity, was removed from the primary crew two days before launch. John Swigert took his place. Apollo 13, like all the Apollo lunar-landing missions, was launched atop the most powerful American rocket booster, the three-stage Saturn V. The first stage of the Saturn V, the S-IC, used five F-1 rocket engines to develop a thrust of more than 33.4 million newtons at launch. The second stage, the S-II, employed five smaller J-2 engines to provide more than 4.4 million newtons of thrust. The third stage, the S-IVB, had a single J-2 engine that would first boost the crewed payload into Earth orbit and then power the Apollo spacecraft through translunar injection and on its way to the Moon. Once safely out of Earth’s orbit, the Apollo 13 CSM, Odyssey, would separate from the S-IVB stage, turn around, and remove the LM, Aquarius, from its berth atop the booster. The S-IVB would then be sent on a trajectory to crash on the Moon’s surface near Apollo 12’s landing site to test the seismic experiments placed there by astronauts Charles Conrad and Alan L. Bean. According to Lovell, this was the only part of the Apollo 13 mission that took place as planned. Apollo 13 was launched on schedule from Launch Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Shortly after the second stage ignited, one of the booster rocket’s five engines shut down, requiring the other four to compensate by firing 34 seconds longer than planned. Apart from this, the mission’s initial phases were nearly flawless. Things changed dramatically, however, approximately 56 hours into the flight, when the spacecraft was more than 320,000 kilometers from Earth. Shortly after completing a live television broadcast in which Lovell and Haise gave earthbound viewers a tour of Aquarius, the astronauts heard a loud bang from the Service Module (SM), quickly followed by a drop in pressure in the SM’s oxygen tanks and a loss of electrical power to the Command Module (CM). Within an hour, the SM was dead in space, without oxygen or power for the CM, which had only a few hours of each for use during reentry. Later investigation showed that a heater in an oxygen tank had exploded in the SM’s fuel cells, the system that supplied electrical power to the CM. This explosion burst both of the SM’s oxygen tanks, its main engine, and all of its fuel cells, completely tearing away one of the module’s outer panels and spreading a cloud of debris and oxygen vapor outward for more than 48 kilometers from Odyssey. Fortunately for the crew, the accident happened on the way to the Moon and not on the return phase of the mission. The LM, Aquarius, was still attached to the CM and was fully stocked for its part of the mission. Never-before-used emergency plans called for using the LM as a lifeboat to ferry the CSM and the crew back to Earth in an emergency. Less than an hour after the explosion, Apollo 13’s lunar landing was canceled and the flight became a lifeboat mission. With the power and oxygen supply to Odyssey all but gone, Lovell, Haise, and Swigert moved into Aquarius’s smaller crew compartment. Because the LM was designed to sustain two men for approximately two days on the Moon’s surface, the on-board oxygen, water, and power supplies had to be strictly rationed over the four-day return to Earth. Thus, the temperature in the spacecraft was allowed to drop to an almost-unbearable 3.3 degrees Celsius (38 degrees Fahrenheit), and frost formed on the inside of the windows. It also meant that each astronaut had only 177 milliliters (6 ounces) of water a day to drink and use in the preparation of dehydrated foods, far below normal amounts. Once they reached the far side of the Moon, the astronauts needed to fire Aquarius’s descent stage main engine to slingshot the spacecraft free of the Moon’s gravitational pull and send it back toward Earth. This gravity-assist maneuver, never before tried with an LM in that configuration, was the most delicate part of the revised mission. While the spacecraft flew around the Moon, millions of people on Earth waited nervously for news that the burn had successfully taken place. Three other burns speeded the spacecraft’s return to Earth and corrected its course. During the approximately four days it took for Apollo 13 to return to Earth, the three astronauts overcame several minor but potentially serious problems. The most notable of these challenges was the rigging of the makeshift system to remove carbon dioxide from the LM cabin when that craft’s own system had proved inadequate. Haise developed a bladder infection and Swigert also became ill because of the primitive conditions in which they had to live during the return flight. At 138 hours into the flight, as Apollo 13 approached Earth, the SM was jettisoned and the crew prepared for the final leg of their flight. Because Aquarius did not have a heat shield and was not equipped to reenter Earth’s atmosphere, the crew would have to return to Odyssey, the CM, and abandon the LM at the last possible moment. This was accomplished less than an hour before the CM reentered the upper atmosphere. After such a mission, Odyssey had a picture-perfect splashdown in the Pacific Ocean, less than four miles from the recovery ship, the USS Iwo Jima on April 17, 1970. Knowledge Gained The lessons learned from the flight of Apollo 13 were not those intended prior to its launch. While the scientific discoveries that were expected from its anticipated landing on the Moon were postponed until Apollo 14, the near disaster of Apollo 13 showed the men and women of the American space program that, even after the many successes they had enjoyed on previous flights, crewed spaceflight was still an extremely dangerous venture each and every time it was attempted. Tragically, the Soviet Union learned the same lesson fourteen months later with the deaths of the Soyuz 11 crew members. Apollo 13 brought together the thousands of people who worked for NASA and its various contractors in a single effort to save three men in space. It showed them that they could use ingenuity and drive to overcome a crisis unlike any they had ever experienced, that, through their efforts, they could directly affect the success of a mission 400,000 kilometers away from Earth. The mission also gave NASA a renewed appreciation for the communications link between Mission Control and the astronauts in space. Technicians on Earth worked around the clock to test options the crew could use in space. Staying in constant contact with their colleagues on Earth helped boost the morale of the Apollo 13 crew, easing somewhat the despair felt after the cancellation of their lunar landing and the discomfort they had to endure during the return flight. From a technical perspective, Apollo 13 also showed NASA the importance of redundant systems on board the spacecraft. After that flight, the SMs were redesigned to include additional fuel cells and oxygen tanks, which would serve as reserves in case something happened to the primary systems. The explosion in the SM also caused NASA to revise and correct quality-control problems in the construction and prelaunch testing of equipment. Minor design changes were also made to the LM, improving its ability to handle the demands of possible future rescue missions. This is believed to have saved the lives of other flight crews and to have contributed substantially to the success of the missions that followed Apollo 13. Context Apollo 13 marked the midpoint in the Apollo Program: Four missions had preceded it to the Moon, and four followed it. The mission also signified the beginning of the end of the Apollo Program’s lunar-landing portion: Shortly after Apollo 13 flew, the last three planned missions, Apollos 18, 19, and 20, were canceled because of budget cuts. Moreover, many of the early astronauts would leave the program as the American crewed program began a dormant period that would last until the advent of the Space Transportation System, otherwise known as the space shuttle. The launch of Apollo 13 represented for millions of Americans the start of “routine” trips to the Moon. Many, in fact, questioned the value of repeated lunar missions, believing that the money used for such ventures could be better spent in other areas. When Apollo 13 became a life-and-death struggle to return the crew to Earth, these opponents of the space program argued that it was an example of placing humans at unnecessary risk to pursue questionable goals. The postflight investigation of the Apollo 13 mishap caused a nine and one-half month delay in the Apollo launch schedule and a significant redesign of the Apollo SM. Because the Apollo 13 landing in the Fra Mauro region was canceled, the final four mission profiles had to be revised to allow Apollo 14 to carry out Apollo 13’s assignment. One result of the flight of Apollo 13 was more humorous than substantive. After the successful splashdown and recovery of the crew, engineers at Grumman Aerospace, the Bethpage, New York, based contractor that built the LM, sent Rockwell International, the builder of the CSM, a $400,000 bill for “towing and road service” for the use of Aquarius as a rescue craft. Word of the joke eventually reached the news media; for months after the flight, Grumman received hundreds of dollars in contributions from private citizens who wanted to help Rockwell pay its debt to the builder of the LM. In 1995, Apollo 13, a feature film directed by Ron Howard and starring Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, Bill Paxton, Gary Sinise, and Ed Harris, retold the story of the ingenuity and team effort that succeeded in returning the spacecraft and astronauts to Earth. The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards, winning two. It captured the imagination of a new generation and helped remind the public of the true heroism that characterized not only these early astronauts but also their families and colleagues on the ground. Bibliography Allday, Jonathan. Apollo in Perspective: Spaceflight Then and Now. Philadelphia: Institute of Physics, 1999. This book takes a retrospective look at the Apollo space program and the technology that was used to land humans on the Moon. The author explains the basic physics and technology of spaceflight, and conveys the huge technological strides that were made and the dedication of the people working on the program. All of the major aspects of the Apollo Program are covered, including crews, vehicles, and space suits. Apollo 13—A Race Against Time. Dallas, Tx.: Computer Support Corporation, 1995. This CD ROM is full of detailed information about the Apollo 13 mission. It includes a re-creation of the mission from liftoff to splashdown using video, photographs, original artwork, and 3-D animation. There are more than three hours of audio tapes covering the major portions of the mission. A complete, minute-by-minute record of the air-to-ground conversations between the Apollo 13 crew and Mission Control is included. In addition, there is a complete encyclopedia of information about Apollo 13. Braun, Wernher von, and Frederick I. Ordway III. Space Travel: A History. New York: Harper & Row, 1985. Von Braun, one of the pioneers of the American space program, provides an enlightening perspective on the development of rocketry and space travel. Collins, Michael. Liftoff. New York: Grove Press, 1988. Written by one of the Apollo 11 astronauts, this account of the U.S. space program ably portrays the excitement of NASA’s golden age. Cooper, Henry S. F., Jr. Thirteen: The Apollo Flight That Failed. New York: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. This book is a re-release of the 1973 edition, published to coincide with the release of the movie Apollo 13. The book details the activities surrounding the extraterrestrial melodrama that captivated a world that found trips to the Moon to be routine. It would be another sixteen years before we again became complacent with spaceflight. That complacency ended with Challenger. This is a fascinating look at the efforts to rescue three astronauts “lost in space” aboard the Apollo 13 Command Module. Although it reads like a novel, this work is based upon news reports and interviews with the participants and does not exploit the “newsworthiness” of the story. Cortright, Edgar M., ed. Apollo Expeditions to the Moon. NASA SP-350. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1975. This well-illustrated volume, considered one of the most authoritative publications on the Apollo Program, provides a wide-ranging view of the planning of the missions, their outcomes, and their scientific legacies. Furniss, Tim. Manned Spaceflight Log. Rev. ed. London: Jane’s, 1986. A chronological, detailed account of every crewed spaceflight up to the Soviet Soyuz T-15. Particularly useful for its coverage of the Soviet space program and its careful overview of worldwide progress in space exploration. Kranz, Gene. Failure Is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. This is the autobiography of Gene Kranz, flight director during Apollo 13. Kranz joined the NASA Space Task Group at Langley, Virginia, in 1960, and was assigned the position of assistant flight director for Project Mercury. He assumed flight director duties for all Project Gemini missions and was branch chief for flight control operations. He was selected as division chief for flight control in 1968 and continued his duties as a flight director for the Apollo 11 lunar landing before taking over the leadership of the Apollo 13 “Tiger Team.” Lewis, Richard S. The Voyages of Apollo: The Exploration of the Moon. New York: Quadrangle, 1974. Covering the Apollo missions starting with Apollo 11, this volume provides transcripts of communications, surveys the scientific results of each mission, and discusses the modifications of lunar theories arising from information gained during exploration. Extensive bibliographies and index. Lovell, Jim, and Jeffrey Kluger. Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1994. This is a minute-by-minute account of the harrowing Apollo 13 mission told from the perspective of mission commander Jim Lovell. In addition, activities within the Mission Control Center are chronicled in detail. This book takes you inside the minds of the astronauts and the ground controllers trying to get the astronauts home safely. Appendices include a mission timeline, a list of the personnel involved, and mission information about each crewed Apollo flight. Pellegrino, Charles R., and Joshua Stoff. Chariots for Apollo: The Making of the Lunar Module. New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1985. This book is unquestionably one of the most informative and enjoyable discussions of the early days of the American crewed space effort. Written with all the drama and excitement of a popular novel, it brings the reader into the minds and hearts of the men and women who built the spiderlike ships that carried twelve astronauts to the surface of Earth’s nearest celestial neighbor. Shepard, Alan, and Deke Slayton, with Jay Barbree and Howard Benedict. Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America’s Race to the Moon. Atlanta: Turner Publishing, 1994. This is, indeed, the inside story of the Apollo Program as told by two men who actively participated in it. Some of their tales have never been previously published. The book was adapted for a four-hour documentary in 1995. Slayton, Donald K., with Michael Cassutt. Deke! U.S. Manned Space: From Mercury to the Shuttle. New York: Forge, 1995. This is the autobiography of the last of the Mercury astronauts to fly in space. After being grounded from flying in Project Mercury for what turned out to be a minor heart murmur, Slayton was appointed head of the Astronaut Office. During his reign he assigned all of the Apollo crew members to their flights. Later, he commanded the Apollo-Soyuz flight in 1975. This is a behind-the-scenes look at America’s attempt to land humans on the Moon. Eric Christensen |
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