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USA in Space, 3rd Edition Apollo 11 Date: July 16 to July 24, 1969 Type of Mission: Lunar exploration, piloted spaceflight Apollo 11 was the first mission to land humans on the Moon and return them to Earth, meeting a goal articulated by President John F. Kennedy at the height of the Cold War. Observations by the astronauts, experiments using equipment they deployed, and studies of samples they brought back greatly increased our knowledge of the Moon and prepared for further discoveries by the Apollo Program. Key Figures Neil A. Armstrong (b. 1930), Apollo 11 mission commander Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. (b. 1930), Apollo 11 Command Module pilot Michael Collins (b. 1930), Apollo 11 Lunar Module pilot James A. Lovell, Jr. (b. 1928), Apollo 11 backup mission commander William A. Anders (b. 1933), Apollo 11 backup Command Module pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr. (b. 1933), Apollo 11 backup Lunar Module pilot Thomas O. Paine (1921-1992), NASA administrator (1969-1970) George E. Mueller (1918-2001), associate administrator for Manned Spaceflight Wernher von Braun (1912-1977), director of the Marshall Space Flight Center Robert R. Gilruth (1913-2000), director of the Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. (b. 1924), director of Flight Operations, Mission Control, Houston Kurt H. Debus (1908-1983), director of the Kennedy Space Center Rocco A. Petrone (b. 1926), director of Launch Operations, Kennedy Space Center Summary of the Mission The Apollo 11 mission was the first to land people on the Moon and bring them back, meeting President John F. Kennedy's challenge made in an address to Congress on May 25, 1961: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth. Astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins took with them to the Moon a collection of instruments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP) and brought back to Earth photographs of the lunar landscape and 22 kilograms of rock and soil samples for later study. The vehicle, known as the Lunar Module (LM), which carried Armstrong and Aldrin to the Moon's surface, was not streamlined; it had no need to be, because it operated only in airless space. With an overall height of nearly 7 meters and a diagonally measured width of 9.5 meters, the LM had a launch weight slightly greater than 15 metric tons on Earth. The cylindrical crew compartment, 2.35 meters in diameter and 1.07 meters deep, provided two stand-up flight stations with harness restraints, front windows, display panels, and landing controls. The LM included a throttleable descent engine, providing up to 458 newtons of thrust, and an ascent engine, providing up to 163 newtons of thrust, each operating on a supply of Aerozine-50 rocket fuel. Other major equipment included liquid propellant (monomethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide), reaction thrusters for fine control of attitude (the orientation of the LM and Command and Service Module, or CSM), VHF and S-band antennae, a platform and ladder leading from the crew compartment to the lunar surface, and a docking hatch and radar for linking with the Command and Service Module. The CSM consisted of a pressurized Command Module (CM), in which all three astronauts traveled, and a Service Module (SM), which contained electrical power and environmental control equipment, a movable S-band antenna array, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), which could develop 948 newtons of thrust. The conical CM had a length of 3.2 meters, a maximum diameter of 3.9 meters, and a launch weight (with astronauts) of 5.9 metric tons. The cylindrical SM had a length of 7.4 meters, a diameter of 3.9 meters, and a launch weight of 24.5 metric tons. On June 12, 1969, two weeks after the successful conclusion of the Apollo 10 mission, NASA announced that the next Apollo flight would include the first landing on the Moon. Nevertheless, it was stated that this crew would not be launched on the expected date unless everything was ready; in addition, the public was informed that NASA would not hesitate to bring the crew home if problems were encountered. All was ready at the expected time, and Apollo 11 lifted off from Launch Complex Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center on a Saturn V launch vehicle at exactly 13:32 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC, or 9:32 A.M. eastern daylight time) on July 16, 1969. The launch and the first phases of the mission so closely followed the nominal plan that only one of four scheduled midcourse corrections was required during the trip to the Moon. On July 19, the SPS was fired to put Apollo 11 into an elliptical lunar orbit, which was made more nearly circular with a later rocket burn. The following day, after all three astronauts had slept, Armstrong and Aldrin crept through the 0.8-meter-diameter tunnel from the CM, named Columbia, to the LM, named Eagle. At the start of the thirteenth orbit, 15 kilometers above the lunar surface, Eagle separated from Columbia and began its descent toward a target in the Sea of Tranquility, one of five smooth landing sites near the lunar equator that had been selected from photographs supplied by robotic Lunar Orbiters. At 2.2 kilometers, with the landing site about 8 kilometers ahead, the guidance computer controlling the descent engine ordered maneuvers putting Eagle into a vertical orientation and giving Armstrong and Aldrin their first close view of the plain below. At an altitude of 150 meters, dropping toward the surface at about 6 meters per second, Armstrong suddenly took over manual control when he saw that the automatic system was taking the Module onto a surface littered with boulders and rocks. For about 90 seconds, he adjusted the craft's position, searching for a clear spot, and he retained semimanual control until touchdown, allowing the computer to control the firing of the descent engine. The Module's legs touched the surface at 20:17 UTC (4:17 P.M. eastern daylight time) on July 20. It landed at a point about 5 kilometers to the west of the nominal target as a result of errors in the data fed to the guidance computer, but the landing was well within the planned ellipse, 12 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide. Armstrong reported, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." At 02:56 UTC on July 21 (10:56 P.M. on July 20 eastern time), Neil A. Armstrong became the first person from Earth to set foot on another celestial body, saying, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. " The article "a," missing in the voice transmission and the original transcript, was later inserted in the record; thus, the message includes the phrase "one small step for a man," referring to the short gap between the LM's landing pad and lunar surface, over which Armstrong was required to jump. While coming down the ladder, he had pulled a lanyard that opened an equipment compartment and deployed a monochrome television camera. Armstrong's first priority was to collect a "contingency sample" of soil and small rocks, sealed in a plastic bag and stored in a pocket above his left knee, as an assurance that some lunar material would be returned to Earth even if the mission had to be cut short. Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., joined him on the lunar surface 19 minutes later. They set a black-and-white television camera away from Eagle to give people on Earth a broad view of the Sea of Tranquility, and then read the statement engraved on a plaque attached to the front landing gear: "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July, 1969 A. D. We came in peace for all mankind." They planted a 0.9-meter-by-1.5-meter American flag, stiffened with wires so as to appear to be flying, and had a brief radio-telephone conversation with President Richard M. Nixon. Armstrong and Aldrin's primary scientific tasks were to gather samples of rocks and soil for return to Earth and to deploy the EASEP. The first experiment was to unroll a sheet of aluminum foil to trap particles of the solar wind (the high-temperature ions and electrons that flow out from the Sun). After 77 minutes, it was rolled up and placed in a vacuum box, which would be returned to Earth for analysis. The second experiment, left on the Moon, was an array of four solar-powered seismometers; these instruments were to record and broadcast information on any tremors, whether caused by internal seismic or volcanic activity or by external meteorite or other bombardment. The first signals were of the astronaut's footsteps. The final apparatus left on the Moon was a square reflector, made up of one hundred fused-silica prisms, designed to return pulses of laser light sent from Earth, thus allowing precise determinations of the distance from Earth to the Moon. Because of the difficulty of bending to the ground in their pressurized space suits, Aldrin and Armstrong used core tubes, a scoop on an extension handle, and long tongs to gather lunar soil and a representative sample of lunar rocks. These were placed into two boxes, each formed from a single piece of aluminum with a lining of the soft metal indium around its lip. When a box was closed and had straps drawn tightly around it, a sharp strip around the edge bit deeply into the indium, thus sealing the samples in a vacuum to protect them from contamination. After 2.5 hours on the Moon, Armstrong returned to the Eagle (Aldrin had returned before him) to rest and prepare for the return trip. At 17:55 UTC (1:55 P.M.) on July 21, the ascent engine of Eagle was ignited, lifting off and leaving behind the Module's lower part, while Michael Collins piloted Columbia through its twenty-fifth lunar orbit. After a series of four maneuvers with the thruster jets, the two craft docked at 21:35 UTC (5:35 P.M.) 110 kilometers above the lunar surface. The trip back to Earth was uneventful. At 16:22 UTC (12:22 P.M.) on July 24, the astronauts jettisoned the SM to start the final descent into Earth's atmosphere. The CM landed upside down, but it was soon righted, only 18 kilometers from the recovery aircraft carrier, the USS Hornet. The three astronauts spent the next three days in a trailer aboard the carrier, which returned to Hawaii; then they were transported by plane and truck to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston, where they remained in quarantine until August 11, undergoing extensive postflight debriefings. Contributions Analysis of the soil and rock samples showed no fossil life, living organisms, or any organic material except for minute traces that scientists believed were the result of contamination from the collection boxes or the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. To test for pathogens (disease-producing agents), biologists inoculated two hundred mice that had been bred in a completely sterile environment and thus had essentially no immunity to disease, with finely ground particles of lunar material. The mice experienced no ill effects. The material in the Sea of Tranquility is igneous (fire-formed) rock, once molten at a temperature in excess of 1,200{deg} Celsius. Though resembling terrestrial basalt in terms of its elements (mostly oxygen, silicon, iron, aluminum, titanium, calcium, and magnesium), the rocks are not like Earth rocks in their proportions. Lunar basalts are rich in titanium and other refractories (high-melting-point materials) and relatively poor in volatiles (low-melting-point materials), such as sodium and potassium. Dating by the rate at which radioactive potassium has been converted into argon indicates that the Sea of Tranquility has been solid for at least three billion years. Glass makes up fully half of the soil samples returned; most of it is in irregular fragments, though about 5 percent of the glass is in the form of drops and globules in brown, green, deep red, and yellow. Erosion processes analogous to sandblasting have smoothed and rounded the surfaces of the rocks. Most specimens have small glass-rimmed pits or glassy areas, suspected to be the result of micrometeorite bombardment, because the rocks and soil show ample evidence of such impacts. There was no evidence for the existence of water on the Sea of Tranquility at any time since the rocks first came to the surface; they show no evidence of rounding by water erosion and are now extremely dry, and their mineral composition indicates that the liquid from which they crystallized had negligible amounts of water chemically bound within it. The particles of solar wind trapped in the aluminum foil were liberated as the foil was vaporized in high vacuum. Mass spectrographic analysis of the isotopic composition of helium, neon, and argon led to subtle refinements in models of the origin of the solar system. The 3-meter telescope at the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton in California and the 2.7-meter telescope at the McDonald Observatory on Mount Locke in Texas were used to bounce laser light from the retroreflector; the distance to the Moon was determined with an uncertainty of not more than 15 centimeters. Information returned by the lunar seismometer, one hundred times as sensitive as terrestrial seismometers at the time of this mission, showed that the Moon is much quieter internally than is Earth. Several trains of high-frequency waves were attributed to landslides, which were the result of stresses associated with the change from extreme heat to extreme cold, in a young, nearby crater. Several fairly strong shocks with lower frequencies, at first thought to be moonquakes, were later attributed to the Module's release of gases or to abnormalities within the instruments. The instruments themselves survived one lunar "day" (14 Earth days of continuous sunlight) and one "night," during which they did not broadcast to Earth because of the lack of solar-generated electrical power. The electronics failed in the next light cycle. Context Apollo 11 was the third piloted Apollo mission to carry American astronauts into orbit around the Moon, having been preceded by Apollo 8 and Apollo 10. It was followed by six more Apollo missions; each of these later missions took three astronauts into orbit around the Moon. On all subsequent missions except Apollo 13, two of the astronauts made a lunar landing. Thus, twelve Americans walked on the surface of the Moon during the Apollo Program; a total of twenty-four saw the surface from lunar orbit. Since the invention of telescopes around 1600, the Moon has been known to be covered with craters, mountains, valleys, and the vast plains called maria, or seas--a term dating to the time when astronomers believed that there were oceans on the Moon. Although only one side of the Moon ever faces Earth, it is nevertheless possible to see 59 percent of the Moon's surface from Earth. Because the Moon's axis of rotation is not exactly perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, a small portion of the far side beyond the lunar north or south pole can sometimes be seen. Because the Moon's orbital speed in its elliptical path varies according to Kepler's third law, while its rotational speed on its axis is essentially constant, astronomers can occasionally see slightly beyond the eastern and western limbs (the visible edges) of the Moon. Nevertheless, features near the limbs or poles are viewed so obliquely that their shapes are difficult to determine; objects less than about 0.5 kilometer in diameter cannot be resolved in any earthbound telescope. Exploration of the Moon by spacecraft began in the early 1960's with three successful hard landings of the Ranger series; the two wide-angle and four narrow-angle television cameras aboard each craft transmitted close-up views during the descents. The resulting 13,453 images included some from altitudes of less than 1 kilometer; they showed details as small as 1 meter in diameter. The obvious next step in preparing for the piloted landings, soft-landing instrument packages, was accomplished during the Surveyor series. Shortly after the first of these missions, the Lunar Orbiter missions began; they used photographic film that was processed and electronically scanned. Five successful orbiters transmitted data to Earth, where 1,950 high-resolution photographs were reconstructed, covering more than 99 percent of the lunar surface; these photographs formed the basis for the selection of the Apollo Program's landing sites. The great age of the rocks returned by Apollo 11 was initially surprising to many geologists, and whether the source of the heat that formed them was from a volcanic lunar interior or impacts by large meteorites remains undetermined. While many questions about the nature and history of the Moon and the solar system were answered by data from the Apollo 11 mission, others were raised. Materials brought back by later Apollo missions proved helpful in understanding new puzzles. Data were also broadcast back to Earth by the five Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEPs) that they deployed, which were redesigned on the basis of experience gained from this mission. For example, ALSEP electronics were protected from the heat of the lunar "day" by heat-radiating thermal blankets. More than ten years of precise laser testing of the distance between Earth and the Moon using the retroreflectors--which were part of EASEP and all ALSEPs--provided stringent tests of the general theory of relativity, Albert Einstein's theory of gravity, and the first direct experimental measurement of the rate of continental drift. These are important in understanding the geologic activity of the crust and have wide-ranging implications for the environment on Earth. See Also Apollo Program; Apollo Program: Command and Service Module; Apollo Program: Geological Results; Apollo Program: Lunar Lander Training Vehicles; Apollo Program: Lunar Module; Apollo Program: Orbital and Lunar Surface Experiments; Apollo 10; Apollo 12; Apollo 13; Apollo-Soyuz Test Project; Astronauts and the U.S. Astronaut Program; Extravehicular Activity; Gemini Program; Lunar Exploration; National Commission on Space. Further Reading Aldrin, Edwin E. "Buzz," Jr., and Malcolm McConnell. Men from Earth. New York: Bantam Books, 1991. Everyone knows Neil A. Armstrong's first words as he stepped onto the Moon, but few people know that during the walk he touched Buzz Aldrin on the shoulder and said, "Isn't it fun?" As one of the first men on the Moon, Aldrin tells the story of America's journey to the lunar surface from a perspective unavailable to most. His description of the Apollo 11 landing reads like a James Michener novel. One of the most difficult questions for an astronaut to answer is, "What's it like?" Aldrin has found a way to answer that question so that the reader can easily envision the desolation of the lunar surface. A briefly annotated but extensive bibliography and photographs are included. Allday, Jonathan. Apollo 11: The NASA Mission Reports. Burlington, Ont.: Apogee Books, 1999. Includes the postflight debriefing of the astronauts, as well as the entire uncut television broadcast of the moonwalk on CD and an exclusive interview with Buzz Aldrin conducted in June, 1999. ____________. Apollo in Perspective: Spaceflight Then and Now. Philadelphia: Institute of Physics, 1999. This book takes a retrospective look at the Apollo Program and the technology that was used to land humans on the Moon. Armstrong, Neil, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin. First on the Moon. New York: Williams Konecky Associates, 2002. Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin give us the exclusive story of Apollo 11, from the earliest preparations to the final touchdown back on planet Earth. Photographs accompany the text. Baker, David. The History of Manned Space Flight. New York: Crown, 1982. A comprehensive, chronological account of human flight beyond Earth's atmosphere from pre-World War II theorizing and rocket development through the beginnings of the first successes in the space shuttle program. Illustrated with monochrome and color photographs. Contains tables about hardware, missions, and participants. Bedini, Silvio A., Wernher von Braun, and Fred L. Whipple. Moon: Man's Greatest Adventure. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1969. This profusely illustrated volume includes essays on the human fascination with the Moon throughout history and transcripts of conversations from the lunar surface. Concludes with a chronology of significant flights up to the lunar landing; includes charts, maps, and a fold-out diagram of the Apollo 11 flight. Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. New York: Penguin Group, 1998. The Apollo Moon landings are retold through the eyes and ears of the people who were there. Based on interviews with twenty-three Moon voyagers, as well as those who struggled to get the program moving. This book conveys every aspect of the missions with breathtaking immediacy: from the rush of liftoff to the heart-stopping lunar touchdown to the final hurdle of reentry. Collins, Michael. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974. Everyone knows Neil A. Armstrong was the first human to walk on the Moon. Most remember that Buzz Aldrin went with him to the lunar surface. Few can say who waited in orbit while the other two "made history." Michael Collins was the only person who could not have watched the lunar landing on television. He was too busy in Columbia trying to locate the LM Eagle through his low-powered telescope and making sure Armstrong and Aldrin had a place to which to return. Collins relays his feelings about the flight and what he would have done if Eagle and its crew had been stranded on the Moon. This personal glimpse at the historic flight emphasizes the human element of the story--perhaps the most neglected aspect. ____________. Liftoff: The Story of America's Adventure in Space. New York: Grove Press, 1988. Many books have been written about the Apollo Program, most of them about Apollo 11. Few have given us an inside look at the delicate melding of man and machine. Contributing to this complete history of America's piloted space programs, Collins devotes a large portion to Apollo. He sets the record straight about some of the misconceptions of astronauts and space machines. The book is illustrated with eighty-eight line drawings by James Dean, former NASA art director, which add stark realism to an otherwise unreal world. Godwin, Robert, ed. Apollo 11: The NASA Mission Reports. Vol. 1. Burlington, Ont.: Apogee Books, 1999. This collection contains reprints of the Apollo 11 press kit, preflight mission operation report, postflight mission operation report, and the Apollo 11 post-flight press conference. The CD-ROM includes two thirty-minute movies of the flight as well as more than thirteen hundred still pictures taken during the mission. ____________. Apollo 11: The NASA Mission Reports. Vol. 2. Burlington, Ont.: Apogee Books, 1999. This collection contains a reprint of the Apollo 11 technical crew debriefing. The CD-ROM includes an exclusive interview with Dr. Buzz Aldrin, a unique interactive panoramic image of Tranquility Base, and the entire unedited television broadcast from Tranquility Base. ____________. Apollo 11: The NASA Mission Reports. Vol. 3. Burlington, Ont.: Apogee Books, 2002. Volume 3 of this set includes the Apollo 11 mission report, detailing the results of the first piloted lunar-landing mission. The book includes a DVD of an exclusive movie, Apollo 11: Moon Walk, a 140-minute composition from two camera angles with unique panoramas and still images. Kaufmann, William J. Exploration of the Solar System. New York: Macmillan, 1978. A comprehensive survey of the solar system sciences, including a chapter that synthesizes knowledge about the Moon gained from space exploration with that available previously. Includes a glossary, tables of data about planets and their satellites, a log of missions launched from 1962 through 1977, and an index. Kelly, Thomas J. Moon Lander: How We Developed the Apollo Lunar Module. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 2001. Grumman Chief Engineer Kelly gives a firsthand account of designing, building, testing, and flying the Apollo Lunar Module. Kraft, Christopher C., Jr. Flight: My Life in Mission Control. East Rutherford, N.J.: Penguin Putnam, 2002. The first NASA flight director gives an account of his life in Mission Control. Lambright, W. Henry. Powering Apollo: James E. Webb of NASA. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. Lambright explores James E. Webb's leadership role in NASA's spectacular success. Levinson, Alfred Abraham, et al., eds. Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference. 3 vols. Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, 1970. A complete record of a four-day discussion of the results of three months of intensive investigation of the lunar samples returned by Apollo 11. Mostly accessible to a college-level, nontechnical student audience. Each of the 180 articles ends with references for further study. Liebergot, Sy, and David Harland. Apollo EECOM: Journey of a Lifetime. Burlington, Ont.: Apogee Books, 2003. This is the life story of Sy Liebergot, former NASA flight controller, with emphasis on his years working in Apollo Mission Control. Lindsay, Hamish. Tracking Apollo to the Moon. London: Springer-Verlag London Limited, 2001. Feature interviews, quotes, and extensive photographs, including some that appear here for the first time. There are numerous pictures and illustrations. Mason, Brian, and William G. Melson. The Lunar Rocks. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1970. A concise and coherent review of the scientific effort expended in analyzing the lunar samples returned by Apollo 11, this work gives an interpretation of the results, including implications for understanding lunar history. Illustrated with monochrome photographs, graphs, and tables. Concludes with an extensive list of references and index. College-level material. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Apollo 11 Mission Report. Washington, D.C.: National Technical Information Services, 1969. This is the official report of the results of the Apollo 11 flight. The original is out of print, but copies can be obtained through the National Technical Information Services. An Internet search will turn up a copy in Adobe Acrobat format for easy download. Nowhere else will you find as in-depth a document on the technical, scientific, and human aspects of the mission. ____________. Apollo Mission Press Kits. http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/presskits.html. Provides detailed preflight information about each of the Apollo missions, Apollo 6 through Apollo 17. Accessed March, 2005. Shepard, Alan B., Jr., and Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, with Jay Barbree and Howard Benedict. Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Race to the Moon. Atlanta: Turner, 1994. This is, indeed, the inside story of the Apollo Program as told by two men who actively participated in it. Some of their tales appear here for the first time. The book was adapted for a four-hour documentary in 1995. Siddiqi, Asif A. The Soviet Space Race with Apollo. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003. ____________. Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003. These two volumes constitute the first comprehensive history of the Soviet piloted space programs. Slayton, Donald K., with Michael Cassutt. Deke! U.S. Manned Space: From Mercury to the Shuttle. New York: Forge, 1995. This is the autobiography of the last of the Mercury astronauts to fly in space. After being grounded from flying in Project Mercury for what turned out to be a minor heart murmur, Slayton was appointed head of the Astronaut Office. During his reign he assigned all of the Apollo crew members to their flights. Later, he commanded the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight in 1975. This is a behind-the-scenes look at America's attempt to land humans on the Moon. Swanson, Glen E. Before This Decade Is Out: Personal Reflections on the Apollo Program. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002. This collection of oral histories of the Saturn/Apollo Program recounts the unique adventure from the perspective of political leaders, engineers, scientists, and astronauts. Turnill, Reginald. The Moonlandings: An Eyewitness Account. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Turnill spent his career covering all the piloted space missions as well as planetary missions like Mariner, Pioneer, Viking, and Voyager. Ulivi, Paolo, and David M. Harland. Lunar Exploration: Human Pioneers and Robotic Surveyors. London: Springer-Verlag London Limited, 2004. The authors provide a well-paced, rapidly moving, balanced, even-handed account of lunar exploration in this popular history. Wagener, Leon. One Giant Leap: Neil Armstrong's Stellar American Journey. New York: Forge Books, 2004. This first biography of Armstrong relies on hundreds of interviews with family and friends of the astronaut and on NASA files. Wendt, Guenter, and Russell Still. The Unbroken Chain. Burlington, Ont.: Apogee Books, 2001. The autobiography of the only person who worked with every astronaut bound for space. John J. Dykla John L. Berkley |
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