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Science and Scientists Categories Abel, Niels Henrick, 2 Abell, George Ogden, 337 Abelson, Philip, 769 Aberration of starlight, 934 Absolute zero, 548, 588-589, 972, 984 Abstract algebra, 1-5 Acceleration, 324; Einstein, 860 Aces, 830 Acetylsalicylic acid, 31 Acquired characteristics, 560-565 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. See HIV/AIDS Actinomycetes, 966 Active galactic nuclei (AGNs), 1042 Actual infinity, 60 Adams, Walter Sydney, 155 Adult stem cells, 951 Advanced Research Projects Agency, 530 Advancement of Learning (Bacon), 900 Affective disorders, 605 Age of Earth. See Earth’s age Age of the universe, 1033 Agglutination, 95 Aging in space, 259 AIDS. See HIV/AIDS AIDS and Its Metaphors (Sontag), 476 Air, composition of, 53, 131-136, 707-711, 752 Air pumps, 41, 113 Akers, Thomas D. “Tom,” 455 Albert of Saxony, 625 Albrecht, Andreas, 506, 969 Alchemy, 113 Alcubierre, Roque Joachim de, 784 Aldrin, Edwin E. (Buzz), Jr., 650 Alembert, Jean le Rond d’, 214, 662 Alembert’s principle, 216 Algebra, 516, 781; abstract, 1-5; and logic, 104; New Math, 108 Alleles, 168, 790 Alpha decay, 9-14 Alpha particles, 12, 43, 847 Alpher, Ralph Asher, 74 Altamira cave paintings, 569 Altman, Sidney, 866, 871 Alvarez, Luis W., 612, 614 Alvarez, Walter, 612, 614 Alvin (submersible), 486-487 Amber effect, 184, 269, 601 American Science and Engineering, 1039 Amino acids, 14-18, 252, 368, 867 Ampère, André-Marie, 277 Ampère’s law, 275 Analgesics, 31 Analysis per quantitatum series, fluxiones, ad differentias (Newton), 128 Anatomy, human, 462-464. See also Circulation Anaxagoras, 415 Anaximander, 905, 907 Anaximenes of Miletus, 415, 905, 907 Andernach, Johann Guenther von, 801 Anderson, Carl David, 847 Anderson, Herbert L., 679, 682 Andersson, Johan Gunnar, 721 Andromeda nebula, 342 Anesthesia, 18-23, 25 Angelini, Lorella, 359 Animalcules, 190, 941 Anoxemia, 100 Anthrax vaccine, 385 Antibiotic resistance, 968 Antibiotics; penicillin, 729-733; streptomycin, 965-968 Antibodies, 95, 478, 493; monoclonal, 480 Antigens, 478 Anti-inflammatory medications, 34 Antiprotons, 293 Antisepsis, 23-27, 889 Antitoxins, 239, 492 Aperture synthesis, 1000 Apex chert, 15 Apollo 11 mission, 649-654 Apollo program, 260, 650 Apollonius of Perga, 409 Appert, Nicolas, 943 Apple Computer, 738-742 Appleton, Edward Victor, 534, 536 Appleton atmospheric layer, 537 Arago, François, 273 Archimedes, 482; legends about, 483; on motion, 65 Arecibo radio telescope, 999 Argo-Jason (submersible), 487 Aristarchus of Samos, 409 Aristotle, 415, 625, 895; on fossils, 330; on Hippocrates, 416; logic, 104, 900; on motion, 65, 323; scientific method, 894-899 Arithmetic, 62, 501 Arithmetic of al-Uqlidisi, The (al-Uqltdist), 225 Arithmetica infinitorum (Wallis), 127 Armstrong, Neil A., 650, 652 ARPAnet, 531 Arrhenius, Svante August, 387, 389 Ars Conjectandi (Bernoulli, Jakob I), 70 Arsuaga Ferreras, Juan Luis, 393, 395 Artemidorus, 415 Artificial insemination, 704 Artificial intelligence, 27-31 Artin, Emil, 1, 4 #ryabhaza the Elder, 223 Aryabhatiya, The (#ryabhaza the Elder), 223 Asaro, Frank, 612 ASCA (satellite), 1041 Ascorbic acid, 1008 Aserinsky, Eugene, 863 Asilomar Conference (1975), 858 Aspirin, 31-35 Assmann, Richard, 960 Association des Collaborateurs de Nicolas Bourbaki, L’, 109 Asteroids, 138; mass extinctions, 613-615, 695 Asthenosphere, 762 Astronauts, 256-261 Astronomia philolaica (Boulliau), 883 Astronomy, Greece, 409-414 Atapuercan excavations, 393 Atmosphere (Earth’s); circulation of, 35-39, 1027-1030; ionosphere, 534-538; modeling, 391 Atmospheric pressure, 39-42 Atmospheric weather fronts, 1027-1030 Atomic bomb, 683, 770 Atomic clocks, 656, 1000 Atomic mass, 51 Atomic nucleus, 42-47, 542, 677; binding force, 831. See also Nuclear fission Atomic number, 272 Atomic pile, 681-682 Atomic structure, 10, 47-50, 433, 541, 826; exclusion principle, 306-310 Atomic theory, Greek, 43 Atomic theory of matter (Dalton), 50-55 Atomic weights, 734 Aubrey, John, 955 Aurignacian period, 213, 571 Auroras, 919 Ausman, Neal E., Jr., 351 Australopithecus, 1056 Australopithecus afarensis, 599 Australopithecus africanus, 55-59, 596, 723 Australopithecus boisei, 596, 1055-1059 Australopithecus robustus, 596 Avebury, 955 Averroës, 626 Avery, Oswald T., 252 Axiom of choice (Levi), 59-64 Axiomatic method, 617 Axioms of Euclid, 297 Axioms of motion (d’Alembert), 213-217 Baade, Walter, 310, 671, 839, 948 Bacon, Francis, 600, 604, 900, 903 Bacteria; discovery, 640; disease-causing, 191, 237, 385, 887, 1002; disease-fighting, 965; genetic engineering, 855 Baire, René, 62 Ballard, Robert D., 485, 487 Ballistics, 64-69, 324 Balloons, 203, 206 Baltimore, David, 688 Banting, Frederick Grant, 451, 513 Bar Kokhba, 220 Baran, Paul, 530 Bardeen, John, 972, 976 Bardeen, William, 818 Bardon, L., 658 Barghoorn, Elso, 14, 634 Barkla, Charles Glover, 1047 Barnard, Christiaan, 429 Barnett, Miles A. F., 535 Barometers, 39-42 Barrow, Isaac, 126, 406 Barthelmy, Scott, 359 BASIC computer language, 740 Bateson, William, 632 Bauhin, Gaspard, 81 Bayer Company, 33 Bayliss, William Maddock, 451 Beagle expedition, 301 Becquerel, Antoine-Henri, 1048 Bednorz, Johannes Georg, 975 Bees, 509-512 Behring, Emil von, 236, 492, 887 Bei, Weng Zhong, 722 Beijerinck, Martinus, 1002 Bell, Jocelyn, 673, 805, 846 Bell curve, 69-74 Bell Laboratories, 202, 574, 836 Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 65 Beppo-Sax (telescope), 361 Berg, Paul, 248, 854 Berger, Lee, 566 Bergeron, Tor, 1028 Bergstralh, Jay, 351 Bernard, Claude, 385 Bernoulli, Daniel, 214, 356, 555, 558 Bernoulli, Jakob I, 69 Bernoulli, James, 581 Bernoulli, Johann, 516, 558 Bernoulli, Nikolaus, 69 Bernoulli’s theorem, 581 Bernstein, Felix, 59, 62 Berthelot, Marcellin, 382 Berthold, Arnold, 451 Berthollet, Claude Louis, 227, 230, 662-663 Berzelius, Jons Jakob, 51 Best, Charles H., 513 Bettazzi, Rodolfo, 62 Bh3skara, 225 Bible, 220 Biermann, Ludwig, 919 Big bang theory, 77, 311, 345, 506, 969, 1031; George Gamow’s proposal, 74-79; microwave background radiation, 204; particle physics, 831 Bigelow, Henry Jacob, 20 Binary stars, 152, 672 Binomial classification (Linnaeus), 80-84 Binomial distribution, 70 Bioethics; cloning, 178; genome sequencing, 473; in vitro fertilization, 498; ova transfer, 706; recombinant DNA technology, 857; stem cells, 953 Biot-Savart law, 275 Bipolar disorder, 604-607 Bishop, J. Michael, 688 Bitter Springs formation, 14 Bjerknes, Jacob, 1028 Bjerknes, Vilhelm, 35, 38, 1028 Black, Joseph, 131-132, 709, 991 Black dwarf stars, 87 Black holes, 84-89, 159, 359, 673, 835, 863, 949, 1041; and quasars, 1001 Blackbody radiation, 822, 1024 Blackett, Patrick M. S., 912 Blagden, Charles, 1019 Blalock, Alfred, 100-101 Blalock-Taussig procedure, 102 Bletchley, England, 28 Blood circulation, 89-95, 801-805 Blood groups, 95-99 Blood transfusions, 96 Blood typing, 97; hybridomas, 481 Blue babies, 101 Blue baby surgery, 99-103 Blueshifts, 343. See also Doppler shifts Bogan, Denis, 136 Bohr, Niels, 10, 43, 47, 306, 433, 680, 750, 821, 824, 890, 1024 Bohr model of the atom, 10, 47-50, 306, 433, 750, 826, 1026 Boltwood, Bertram Borden, 850 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 821, 979 Bolzano, Bernhard, 60, 521 Bones, 1014 Boole, George, 27, 103, 106, 617 Boolean logic, 103-107, 617 Boolean searches, 106 Borel, Émile, 355, 520, 522 Borel, Pierre, 637 Born, Max, 433 Bort, Léon Teisserenc de, 960 Bosons, 293 Bothe, Walther, 208, 675 Bouchard, Pierre François Xavier, 873 Boule, Marcellin, 658 Boulliau, Ismaël, 883 Bourbaki, Nicolas, 109 Bourbaki group, 108-112 Bouyssonie, A., 658 Bouyssonie, J., 658 Boveri, Theodor, 167, 646 Bowersox, Kenneth D., 455, 458 Bowler, Ralph Howard, 155 Boyd, Padi, 359 Boyer, Herbert Wayne, 854 Boyle, Robert, 39, 112, 117, 555 Boyle’s law, 42, 112-118, 555 Bradley, James, 591, 932 Bradwardine, Thomas, 625 Bragg, Lawrence, 1043 Bragg, William Henry, 1043 Brahe, Tycho, 119-120, 437, 551, 671 Brahmagupta, 225 Brahmasphuzasiddh3nta (Brahmagupta), 225 Brain research, 665, 936-939; sleep studies, 864 Brasier, Martin D., 15 Bravais, Auguste, 1044 Breast-feeding; rickets, 1011; syphilis, 188 Breidenbach, Warren C., 425 Breuer, Josef, 797 Breuil, Henri-Édouard-Prosper, 569 Bridges, Calvin Blackman, 363 Broglie, Louis de, 309, 750, 890, 1024 Bromine, stratospheric, 715 Broom, Robert, 55-56, 1056 Brouwer, Luitzen E. J., 878, 880 Brown, Lesley, 498 Brown, Louise Joy, 498 Brownian motion, 686, 748-749 Brunhes, Bernard, 379 Brunner, Johann Conrad, 513 Bruno, Giordano, 200, 627 Buckminsterfullerene, 122-126 Buckyball. See Buckminster-fullerene Buffon, comte de, 83, 373, 561, 940, 991 Bunsen, Robert, 927, 930 Buridan, Jean, 625 Burkitt’s lymphoma, 690 Burrows, Dave, 359 Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), 360 Buster, John Edmond, 704 Bustillo, Maria, 704 Butler, R. Paul, 315 Calculus, 59, 126-131, 520, 554, 781; integral, 516-520; Newton-Leibniz priority debate, 129 Calendars, Mayan, 622 Callisto (moon of Jupiter), 353, 1018 Caloric theory (Clausius), 979 Calvert, Frank, 986 Calvin, John, 801-802 Calvin, Melvin, 751, 755 Campani, Giuseppe, 543 Campbell, Keith H. S., 175 Cancer, 474; chickens, 689; oncogenes, 687-691; pesticide exposure, 746 Cantor, Georg, 1, 59, 503, 522, 618 Carbohydrate metabolism, 171, 755 Carbolic acid, 24 Carbon chemistry, 122 Carbon dioxide, 131-136, 707; atmospheric, 387-392; photosynthesis, 753 Carbon in plants, 754 Carbon 60, 122-126 Carcinogens, 746 Cardano, Gerolamo, 64, 67, 793 Cardinalities of numbers, 503 Carnot, Sadi, 979 Carpenter, M. Scott, 256 Cartan, Henri, 108 Cartesian philosophy. See Descartes, René Cartier, Pierre, 110 Casani, John R., 1015 Cassini, Gian Domenico, 543, 545, 882, 932 Cassini Division, 545 Cassini-Huygens mission, 136-141 Cassiopeia, 119, 840, 845 Castelli, Benedetto, 39 Castro, José Maria Bermúdez de, 393 Catastrophism, 374, 616, 993 Cathode rays, 287, 540, 1035, 1047 Cavalieri, Bonaventura, 126 Cavendish, Henry, 707, 709, 1019, 1021 Cavendish Laboratory, 45, 676-677 Cech, Thomas R., 866 Celera Genomics, 471 Cell division, 646. See also Meiosis; Mitosis Cell membranes, 701 Cell theory, 141-146; osmosis, 702 Celsius temperature scale, 146-150, 320, 547, 549 Celsius, Anders, 146, 149, 319, 547 Centers for Disease Control, 6 Centigrade scale, 150, 321. See also Celsius temperature scale Central limit theorem, 582 Centre Européen de Recherche Nucléaire (CERN), 293 Cepheid variables, 151-155, 311 Cerf, Vinton G., 530, 532 Cesalpino, Andrea, 80 CFC-ozone depletion theory, 165 CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons Chadwick, James, 675-676, 847 Chain, Ernst Boris, 729, 731 Challenger (shuttle orbiter) accident, 925 Chamberlin, T. C., 388, 757 Champier, Symphorien, 801 Champollion, Jean François, 872 Chandra X-Ray Observatory, 1041 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 88, 155, 159, 760, 919 Chandrasekhar limit, 155-160 Chaos theory, 160-163, 334 Chaotic dynamics, 162 Chaotic systems, 161 Chapman, Sydney, 919 Chargaff, Erwin, 252 Charon (moon of Pluto), 767 Châtelet, marquise du, 408 Chebyshev, Pafnuty, 581 Chemical compounds, 227-232; definite proportions, 230 Chemical elements. See Elements Chemical revolution, 135 Chemokines, 475 Chemotherapy, 968 Chert, 634 Chevalley, Claude, 108 Chicxulub crater, 615 Chlorine, 164 Chlorofluorocarbons, 163-167, 712 Chloroform, 21 Chlorophyll, 755 Cholinergic-adrenergic imbalance, 606 Cholinergic chemicals, 606 Christianismi restitutio (Servetus), 802-803 Christin, Jean Pierre, 146, 319 Christy, Henry, 210 Christy, James, 767 Chromosomal theory of inheritance, 169 Chromosomes, 167-171, 249, 365; during cell division, 647; variable number tandem repeats, 244 Chronometer, 590-595 Circulation, blood, 89-95, 801-805 Circumference of Earth, 411 Citrate, 172 Citric acid cycle, 171-175 Clairaut, Alexis, 214 Clapeyron, Benoît-Paul-Émile, 979 Classification of species, 80-84 Claus, Carl, 490 Clausius, Rudolf, 821, 979 Clifford, George, 83 Climate change, 387-392 Clocks; atomic, 656, 1000; mechanical, 725; pendulum, 592, 725, 933; radioactive, 851 Cloning; of animals, 175-179; stem cells, 952; telomeres, 176; viral, 250 Cloud chambers, 290 COBE. See Cosmic Background Explorer satellite Cohen, Paul, 448, 503 Cohen, Stanley Norman, 854, 856 Colbert, Jean-Bapiste, 545 Collins, Francis, 471 Collins, Michael, 650 Collinson, Peter, 576 Collip, James Bertram, 513 Colombo, Realdo, 90 Color, theories of, 696 Color-luminosity relationship of stars, 944. See also Period-luminosity scale Colors (quantum mechanics), 819 Columbia (shuttle orbiter), 924; accident, 925; STS-107, 528 Columbus, Christopher, 35, 591 Coma galaxy cluster, 338 Combustion, 134, 709; Robert Boyle on, 115 Comets, 420-425, 692; tails, 919 Commentariolus (Copernicus), 199 Communicable diseases, 237 Complexity, 160 Compton, Arthur Holly, 179, 181, 206, 679, 682, 1051 Compton effect, 179-183, 209 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 360 Computers, 738-742; early, 28 Conditioned reflexes, 717 Conditioning, 716-720 Conduction, electrical, 183-187, 269, 579 Conics (Euclid), 299 Conservation of energy (thermodynamics), 979, 981 Conservation of mass (Lavoisier), 52 Constructivists. See Intuitionist school Contagion, 187-192; viral, 1002-1005 Continental drift, 192-196, 266, 763, 910 Continuum hypothesis, 61, 503-506 Convection cells (Earth’s mantle), 195, 486, 913 Convergent boundaries, 486 Cooper pairs, 973 Cooper, L. Gordon, 256 Cooper, Leon N., 972, 976 Cope, Edward Drinker, 560, 565 Copernican model of the universe, 196-201 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 196, 198, 405, 437, 551 Coptic language, 874 Core of Earth, 261-265 Coriolis, Gustave-Gaspard de, 35 Coriolis effect, 37 Corliss, John B., 485 Corpus callosum, 937 Corpuscular theory, 114, 232 Correns, Carl Erich, 167, 628 Correspondence principle (Bohr), 49 Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE), 1031 Cosmic microwave background radiation, 78, 201-206, 846, 1031-1034 Cosmic rays, 206-209 Cosmic X-Ray Explorer, 1040 Cosmological constant (Einstein), 1034 Cosmology, Greek, 906. See also Big bang theory; Geocentric model of the universe; Heliocentric model of the universe Cottam, Clarence, 742 Coulomb, Charles, 271 Coulomb, Jean, 108 Covey, Richard O., 455, 458 Cowpox, 915 Cox, Allan V., 379 Cox, Harold, 775 Crab nebula, 673 Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, 612 Crick, Francis, 252, 368 Crippen, Robert L., 922 Crisp, Joy, 608 Cro-Magnon man, 209-213; discovery, 212 Crookes, William, 287, 1035 Crossing-over (genetics), 365 Crutzen, Paul, 163 Crystal structure, 1050 Crystallography, X-ray, 1043-1047, 1051 Crystals, 1044 Cubic equations, 67 Cullen, William, 131 Curie, Marie, 848, 1048 Curie, Pierre, 1048 Curl, Robert F., 122 Curran, James W., 5 Curtis, Heber Doust, 151, 340 Cuvier, Georges, 374, 560 Cyanosis, 99 Cyclones, 1028 Cyclotrons, 771-772 Cygnus, 839, 845, 1040 Dahl, Mark, 136 D’Alembert’s principle, 216 Dalrymple, Brent, 379 Dalton, John, 50, 53, 227, 230, 538 Dance language of bees, 509-512 Darboux, Jean, 521 Dark energy, 1034 Dark matter, 1034 Dart, Raymond Arthur, 55, 57, 723, 1056 Darwin, Charles, 55, 300, 373, 377, 465, 561, 645, 789; influence of Carolus Linnaeus, 84 Darwin, Erasmus, 300, 465, 561 Data (Euclid), 298 Dating; radiocarbon, 811; radiometric, 850-854; thermoluminescence, 811 Davidson, Charles Rundle, 403 Davis, John Marcell, 605 Davy, Humphry, 277, 547 Dawson, Charles, 56 DDD (pesticide), 744 DDT (pesticide), 743 De analysi per aquationes numero terminorum infinitas (Newton), 128 De contagione et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione (Fracastoro), 188 De cujuslibet animi peccatorum dignotione atque medela (Galen), 349 De fabrica (Vesalius), 90, 462 De magnete (Gilbert), 600 De motu. See On Motion De motu cordis (Harvey), 90 De nova stella (Brahe), 121 De revolutionibus (Copernicus), 198-199, 405, 438, 551 De venarum ostiolis (Fabricius), 92 Dead Sea scrolls, 217-222 Debye, Peter, 182 Decimal numbers, 223-226 Dedekind, Richard, 1, 61 Deduction, Aristotle, 898, 900 Deductive reasoning, 415 Deep Space Network, 354 Defense mechanisms, 798 Definite proportions law (Proust), 51, 53, 227-232 Deism, 408 Del Ferro, Scipione, 67 Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, 319 Delsarte, Jean, 108 Dement, William, 863 Democritus, 905, 909 De Morgan, Augustus, 103 Demotic language, 874 Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA Dephlogisticated air, 708, 1020-1021 Desaguliers, Jean-Théophile, 183 Descartes, René, 89, 93, 112, 214, 373, 405, 516, 696, 727, 757 Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, The (Darwin), 55, 465 De Sitter, Willem, 75, 401 Desmarest, Nicolas, 374 Deuterium, 76 Dewar, James, 586, 983 Dezio, Joe, 359 D-Herelle, Felix, 1005 Diabetes, 453 Diabetes mellitus, 454, 513 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican (Galileo), 200, 325, 437, 441 Diamagnetic substances, 278 Diamond, Fred, 327 Diamond code (Gamow), 11, 369 Dice games, 793 Dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethane. See DDD Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. See DDT Dicke, Robert H., 75, 201-202, 1031 Dietz, Robert S., 195, 910 Dieudonné, Jean, 108 Differential equations, 781 Diffraction, 232-236, 535, 699; X-ray, 1044 Digestion, 717; hormones, 451 Diggs, Thomas, 119 Dinosaur extinctions, 612 Dioptrique (Descartes), 697 Diphtheria, 238; Schick test, 887-890; vaccine, 236-241, 492, 888 Dirichelet, Peter, 521 Discontinuities, 267 Discontinuous functions, 520-525 Discovery (shuttle orbiter), 456 Diseases; ancient Greek concept, 415, 145; contagion, 187-192; germ theory, 382-387; hospitals, 23; toxins, 236-241, 887; viral, 687-691, 1002-1005; yellow fever, 1052-1055. See also Bacteria; Cell theory Divini, Eustachio, 885 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 169, 471, 867; double-helix model, 251-256, 368; origins of life, 17; recombinant, 854-859; structure of, 368 DNA fingerprinting, 241-248 DNA polymerase, 250 DNA sequencing, 248-251 Döbereiner, Johann Wolfgang, 733 Doctrine of Chances, The (de Moivre), 72 Doell, Richard Rayman, 379 Dolly the sheep, 176-177 Dolphin expedition, 911 Donohue, Jerry, 252 Dopeyball, 125 Doppler shifts, 151, 316, 342, 657. See also Blueshifts; Redshifts Double-helix model of DNA, 251-256, 368 Douglas, Stewart, 494 Dreams, 797; REM sleep, 864 Drosophila melanogaster. See Fruit flies Druids, 956 Dubois, Eugène, 55, 469, 722 Dubos, René, 965 Du Fay, Charles-François de Cisternay, 184, 269 Dulbecco, Renato, 688, 774 Dumbleton, John, 625 Durham, Herbert Edward, 96 Du Toit, Alexander Logie, 192 Dutrochet, René Henri Joachim, 701 Dynamic equilibrium, 992 Dynamics, medieval, 624 Dyslexia, 939 Dyson, Frank, 401 E. coli. See Escherichia coli E = mc2, 295, 509, 748 Eagle Crater (Mars), 610 Earth orbit, human, 256-261 Earth tides, 265 Earthquakes, 261, 266; and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 911 Earth’s age, 851, 991-995 Earth’s circumference, 411 Earth’s core, 261-265 Earth’s crust, 761 Earth’s rotation, 627 Earth’s structure, 265-268 Earthworks, 955 Ebola fever, 6 Echo (communications satellite), 203 Eclipsing binary stars, 152 Ecological threats, 743 Eddington, Arthur Stanley, 88, 155, 159, 401, 403, 859, 862 Eddington’s paradox, 156 Edmond, John M., 485 Edwards, Robert Geoffrey, 496 Ego (Freud), 798 Egyptology, 877 Ehresmann, Charles, 108 Ehrlich, Paul, 236, 490, 665 Eightfold way, 828 Einstein, Albert, 85, 179, 398, 401, 654, 681, 747-748, 821, 824-825, 859, 861, 891, 1025 Einstein Observatory, 1041 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 996 Ekström, Daniel, 321 Electric charge, 268-272; oil-drop experiment, 683-687 Electric currents, 272-273, 279 Electric fields, 541 Electric force, 271 Electrical resistance, 548, 588, 590, 814, 972, 976, 985 Electricity, 277-283; lightning, 576-580; in the presence of magnetism, 273-277; theories of, 268-272 Electrodynamics, 273-277; quantum, 308 Electromagnetic force, 398 Electromagnetic spectrum, 179 Electromagnetism, 277-283; as force of nature, 294 Electromagnets, 273 Electron degeneracy in stellar interiors, 157 Electron tunneling, 283-286 Electrons, 10, 47, 272, 289, 539, 677, 1026; charge of, 683-687; Cooper pairs, 973, 976; discovery, 43, 286-291; exclusion principle, 306-310; neutrinos, 294; photoelectric effect, 747; X rays, 1051 Electroweak theory, 292-296 Elementary particle physics, 292-296, 819, 827-832 Elements (chemical); Robert Boyle’s definition, 115; classic four, 115, 709, 733, 1022; formation of, 75; Antoine-Laurent Laviosier, 1022; periodic table, 733-738; proportions in compounds, 227-232; radioactive, 846-850; transuranic, 679 Elements (Euclid), 65, 296, 517, 520 Éléments de mathématique (Bourbaki group), 109 Elliptic curves, 328 Elliptical orbits, 317, 439, 552 Embryo transplantation, 704 Embryonic stem cells, 951 Emission spectra, 49, 929 Empedocles, 415 Empiricism; Greece, 905-910; Renaissance, 904 Enceladus (moon of Saturn), 140, 445 Encyclopedia (Diderot et al.), 214 Endangered species, 742-746 Energy. See Atomic nucleus; Big bang theory; Electrons; Entropy; Heat; Mass-energy equation; Nuclear fission; Quantum theory; Thermodynamics Enterprise (shuttle orbiter), 923 Entropy (thermodynamics), 981, 984 Enzymes, 371, 868; and DNA, 250; RNAse P, 871 Epidermal growth factor, 856 Equivalence principle (Einstein), 862 Erasistratus, 346 Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 409 Erickson, Jim, 608 Erikson, Erik, 797 Erlich, Henry, 241 Esaki, Leo, 283, 285 Escherichia coli, 249, 371, 855 Espinosa, Chris, 738 Essenes sect, 221 Ether, 21 Etherization, 20 Euclid, 296 Euclidean geometry, 296-300; axioms, 297 Eugenics, 367 Eukaryotes, 636 Euler, Leonhard, 516, 781 Europa (moon of Jupiter), 353, 1018 European Center for Nuclear Research, 293 Eustachio, Bartolommeo, 462 Eve, 568 Event horizon. See Schwarzschild radius Evolution; human, 465-470; Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, 560-565. See also Fossils, Human evolution Evolution theory; Charles Darwin, 300-306; influence of genetics, 170; Charles Lyell’s influence, 377 Ewing, Maurice, 911 Exclusion principle, 306-310 Expanding universe, 75, 154, 310-315, 344, 970, 1034; stellar spectra, 931 Extinctions, 305, 612-616; asteroids, 695 Extrasolar planets, 315-318 Eysenck, Hans, 350 “Fable for Tomorrow, A” (Carson), 745 Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Hieronumus, 89, 92 Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, 146, 319 Fahrenheit temperature scale, 147, 318-322, 547, 549 Falling bodies, 68, 233, 322-326, 407, 724 Faraday, Michael, 277-278 Fat metabolism, 171 Feigenbaum, Mitchell, 162 Feldman, William Hugh, 965 Fermat, Pierre de, 126, 327, 517, 793 Fermat’s last theorem, 327-329 Fermentation, 383 Fermi, Enrico, 679, 682 Fermi level, 814 Ferrel cells, 37 Fertility therapies, 496-499, 704-707 Field theory, 2, 63, 277 Fifth axiom (Euclid), 297 Fig Tree chert, 14 Finlay, Carlos J., 1052 Fiore, Antonio, 67 Fire ants, 744 Fission. See Nuclear fission Fixed air, 133 Flamsteed, John, 183, 421 Flandro, Gary A., 1015 Flavors (quantum mechanics), 819 Fleming, Alexander, 729, 731 Flemming, Walther, 645 Fletcher, Harvey, 684 Florey, Baron, 729, 731 Fludd, Robert, 93 Fluxions, 128 Flying boy experiment (Gray), 185 Food chain, 744 Food spoilage, 386, 942 Food-to-energy conversion, 171 Foot-and-mouth disease, 1004 Force, Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 215 Ford, Eric, 317 Forel, A. H., 665 Formalist school, 880 Fossils; Charles Darwin, 467; hominid, 55-59, 595-600, 809-813, 1055-1059; human, 209-213, 393-397, 566-568, 658-661; microfossils, 633-637; Peking man, 720-724; theories, 329-333 Foucault, Léon, 236 Fourier, Joseph, 521, 781 Fracastoro, Girolamo, 188-189, 330 Fractals, 333-336 Francis, Thomas, Jr., 777 Franklin, Benjamin, 187, 269, 576, 578, 701, 703 Franklin, Rosalind, 252-253 Franklin, William, 576 Fraunhofer, Joseph, 927 Fraunhofer lines, 928 Fréchet, Maurice-René, 524 Free electrons, 749 Freedom space station, 527 Frege, Gottlob, 106, 616, 878 Freon, 164, 712 Freud, Sigmund, 796, 799 Friedman, Herbert, 1039 Friedmann, Aleksandr A., 75 Friendship 7 spacecraft, 257 Frisch, Karl von, 510 Frisch, Otto Robert, 680 Fritzsch, Harold, 818 Frölich, Theodor, 1006 Frosch, Paul, 1002 Fruit flies, 170, 364, 472 Functions, 518, 521; polynomials, 782 Fundamental constants; quantized Hall effect, 813; speed of light, 936 Gagarin, Yuri A., 257 Galactic superclusters, 336-339, 842 Galápagos Islands, 302, 486 Galaxies, 310-315, 337, 340-345; formation, 970; quasars, 833; spiral, 151 Galen, 90, 346, 348, 801, 1010 Galilei, Galileo. See Galileo Galilei, Vincenzo, 439 Galileo, 39, 68, 319, 322, 404, 437, 484, 547, 604, 627, 724, 882, 932; heliocentrism, 200; thermometer, 147 Galileo mission, 350-355 Galle, Johann, 767 Gallo, Robert C., 474-475 Galois, Évariste, 2 Galvanometers, 274 Game theory, 355-358 Gamma-ray bursts, 359-363 Gamma-ray spectroscopy, 931 Gamma rays, 360, 656 Gamow, George, 10-11, 74, 205, 311, 368, 1031 Ganita sara sangraha (Mah3vtra), 225 Ganymede (moon of Jupiter), 353 Garrod, Dorothy Annie Elizabeth, 809 Gas giants, 352 Gas pressure, 556 Gases, 53; carbon dioxide, 131-136; chemical composition, 134; kinetic theory, 555-560; oxygen, 707-711; thermodynamics, 983 Gassendi, Pierre, 112 Gauge theory, 293 Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 2 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 51 Gazzaniga, Michael S., 936 Gehrels, Neil, 359 Geiger, Hans, 43 Gell-Mann, Murray, 818, 827, 829 Gene-chromosome theory, 363-367 Gene therapies, 858 General System of Nature, A (Linnaeus), 81 General theory of relativity, 85, 284, 402, 654, 860 Genetic code, 368-373 Genetic engineering, 854-859 Genetically modified crops, 858 Genetics, Mendelian, 628-633 Genome sequencing, 470-474 Genus concept, 80 Geocentric model of the universe, 196, 407, 410, 438, 551, 886 Geochronology, 850-854 Geologic change, 373-379, 991-995; extinctions and, 616 Geologic time, 851, 991-995 Geology, Nicolaus Steno, 331 Geomagnetic reversals, 379-382, 764, 853, 912 Geometry, 296-300, 499, 516, 520, 617; Archimedes, 484; Euclid’s axioms, 297; fractals, 333-336 Georgi, Howard, 397-398 Geothermal energy, 853 Gerhardt, Charles Frederick von, 31 Germ theory of disease, 190, 382-387, 887, 1002 Giacconi, Riccardo, 1039 Giaever, Ivar, 283 Giant sequence stars, 947 Gilbert, Walter, 248 Gilbert, William, 269, 600, 602 Glashow, Sheldon L., 292, 397 Glenn, John H., Jr., 256, 259 Global warming, 387-392; Svante Arrhenius, 389 Gluons, 820, 831 Gockel, Albert, 206 Gödel, Kurt, 448, 499, 503, 619, 878, 880 Gödel’s proof, 501 Gold, Thomas, 807 Golden mean, 909 Goldstein, Eugen, 287, 538 Golgi, Camillo, 665 Google, 532 Goudsmit, Samuel, 306 Graaf, Regnier de, 637-638 Graham, George, 591 Gran Dolina fossils, 393-397 Grand unified theory, 294-295, 397-400, 820, 831 Gravitation; early universe, 969; Albert Einstein, 401-404, 654, 861; as force of nature, 294; Johannes Kepler, 554; Sir Isaac Newton, 404-409, 859 Gravitational force, 398 Gravity-assist maneuvers, 137 Gray, Donald M., 1015 Gray, Stephen, 183, 185, 269 Gray, Tom, 596, 598 Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 352, 542-547, 1017 Greece; astronomy, 409-414; cosmology, 906; mathematics, 415; medicine, 346, 414-419 Green, Owen R., 15 Greenhouse effect, 388, 715 Greenland expeditions, 193 Grew, Nehemiah, 637, 640 Grimaldi, Francesco Maria, 232-233, 699 Gringauz, K. I., 919 Grissom, Virgil I. (Gus), 256 Grossman, Marcel, 860 Group theory, 2 Gruber, Max von, 95, 98 Guericke, Otto von, 39, 112 Guettard, Jean-Étienne, 374 Gunflint chert, 14, 634 Gusev Crater (Mars), 610 Gutenberg, Beno, 261, 265 Guth, Alan, 506 Haber, Fritz, 642 Haberer, K. A., 721 Hadar, Ethiopia, hominids, 597 Hadley, George, 35 Hadley cells, 37 Haeckel, Ernst, 465 Hahn, Otto, 680, 770 Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson, 867 Haldemann, Albert, 608 Hales, Stephen, 709, 751 Hall, Edwin Herbert, 813 Hall, James, 991 Hall resistance, 814 Halley, Edmond, 35, 405-406, 420, 591, 692, 698 Halley’s comet, 420-425 Hallwachs, Wilhelm, 747 Halo orbits, 460 Hand transplantation, 425-429 Hanford nuclear reactor, 773 Hardy, Godfrey Harold, 789 Hardy-Weinberg law, 790 Harkins, William Draper, 675 Harmon, Norman, 1039 Harmonies, 908 Harmony of the World, The (Kepler), 554 Harnack, Adolf, 521 Harrison, John, 591-592 Harrison, William, 591 Harvey, William, 89, 91, 349, 801 Hauksbee, Francis, 183, 269 Haüy, René-Just, 1044 Hawley, Steven A., 455-456 Haynes, Norman Ray, 1015 Hazard, Cyril, 832 Heacock, Raymond L., 1015 Heart, 93; congenital defects, 99; early studies, 801 Heart transplantation, 429-433 Heat capacity, 826 Heat engines, 980 Heat theories, 979-986 Heaviside, Oliver, 534 Heaviside atmospheric layer, 537 Heavy elements, formation, 75 Heezen, Bruce C., 912 Heidelberg man, 55 Heine-Borel theorem, 522 Heisenberg, Werner, 433, 678, 890 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 433-437 Heliocentric model of the universe, 197, 405, 413, 437-443, 551, 886 Helium, 75, 931; liquid, 586-590 Hellenistic astronomy, 409-414 Helmholtz, Hermann von, 287, 979 Hematopoietic cells, 951 Henle, Friedrich, 382 Henry, Joseph, 276 Hensel, Kurt, 1 Heraclides of Pontus, 409 Heraclitus of Ephesus, 415, 905, 908 Herculaneum, 785 Herman, Robert C., 74 Hermite, Charles, 522 Herophilus, 346 Herschel, Caroline Lucretia, 443 Herschel, William, 443, 767, 843, 945 Hertz, Heinrich, 287, 534, 747, 1035 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 944 Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams, 946 Hesiod, 905-906 Hess, Harry Hammond, 195, 761, 910 Hess, Victor Franz, 206 Hevelius, Johannes, 884 Hewish, Antony, 805 Hexuronic acid, 1007 Hey, J. S., 839 Heytesbury, William, 625 Hieratic script, 874 Hieroglyphics, 874 High-Energy Astronomical Observatories (HEAOs), 362, 1041 Hilbert, David, 1, 27, 447, 499, 859-860, 878, 880 Hinshaw, H. Corwin, 967 Hipparchus, 409 Hippocrates, 346, 414, 416 His, Wilhelm, 665 Hisarlik, excavations at, 988 Histograms, 581 Histology, 666 History of the Ocean Basins (Hess), 910 Hitler, Adolf, 679 HIV/AIDS, 5-9, 474-477, 690; mortality vs. diphtheria, 238 Hobbes, Thomas, 93 Hodierna, Giovan Battista, 637 Hoffman, Felix, 31 Hoffman, Jeffery A., 455 Hofmeister, Wilhelm, 142 Holmes, Arthur, 192, 761 Holst, Axel, 1006 Homer, 906 Homeric epics, 987 Hominids; Australopithecus, 55-59, 1055-1059; Charles Darwin, 467; Langebaan, 566-568; Lucy, 595-600; Peking man, 720-724; Qafzeh, 809-813 Homo antecessor, 394-395 Homo erectus, 469, 722 Homo heidelbergensis, 395 Homo neanderthalensis. See Neanderthals Homo sapiens, 58, 210, 567, 659, 809 Hooke, Robert, 39, 112-113, 405-406, 420, 543, 637-638, 696 Hooker telescope, 456 Hopkins, Frederick Gowland, 1007 Hormones, 451-455; diabetes, 453; disease-related, 455; epidermal growth factor, 856; growth, 250; hormone D, 1014; insulin, 512-516 Hospital diseases, 23 Houtermans, Fritz, 10 Howland, John, 1009 Hoyle, Fred, 74, 77 Hubble, Edwin Powell, 75, 151-152, 205, 310, 337, 340, 403, 455 Hubble constant, 314, 1033 Hubble Space Telescope, 361, 455-461 Hubble’s law, 311 Huckins, Earle K., 136 Human anatomy, 462-464. See also Circulation Human evolution, 465-470; Australopithecus, 55-59, 1055-1059; Cro-Magnons, 209-213; Gran Dolina, 393-397; Langebaan footprints, 566-568; Lascaux, 568-572; Lucy, 595-600; Neanderthals, 658-661; Peking man, 720-724; Qafzeh, 809-813 Human genome, 470-474 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). See HIV/AIDS Humason, Milton L., 313, 340 Humors (bodily fluids), 347 Huntress, Wesley T., Jr., 351 Hurricanes; Earth, 544; Jupiter, 352, 542-547 Hutton, James, 373, 991 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 301, 304, 465 Huygens, Christiaan, 232, 235, 405, 696, 724, 727, 793, 881, 932 Huygens probe, 138 Hybridomas, 477-481 Hydrodynamics, 216, 557 Hydrogen, 75, 306, 1019 Hydrostatics, 481-485 Hydrothermal vents, 485-490 Hypernovae, 360 Hysteria, 797 Iapetus (moon of Saturn), 140 IBM Corporation, 742 Ice ages, 393, 921 Id (Freud), 798 Ideas, theory of (Plato), 895 Immune response, 490-496 Immunity, 490 Immunology, 490-496, 918 Immunosuppressive drugs, 426 Immutability of species, 561 In vitro fertilization, 496-499, 704, 951 Incompleteness of formal systems, 499-502 Incompleteness theorem, 450 Independence of continuum hypothesis, 503-506 Independent assortment of alleles, 169 Indeterminacy. See Uncertainty principle Indian number system, 224 Induction (electromagnetic), 281 Induction (logic); Aristotle, 898; Bacon, 900 Inertia, 407 Infantile paralysis, 778 Infectious diseases, 237, 887; contagion, 187-192; germ theory, 382-387; immune response, 490-496; mortality from, 238; yellow fever, 1052-1055 Infeld, Leopold, 403 Infinite series, 782 Infinitesimals, 59 Infinity, 59, 503 Inflammatory response, 492 Inflationary model of the universe, 506-509, 1034 Infrared imaging, 351 Ingenhousz, Jan, 751 Inherited traits, 167-171, 363-367, 789 Inland Ice Expedition (1930), 193 Inoue, Tan, 867 Inquisition, 68, 200, 442 Insect communication, 509-512 Insulin, 453-454, 512-516; genetically engineered, 858 Integers, 503 Integral calculus, 516-520 Integrated Truss Structure (ISS), 527 Integration theory, 520-525 Intelligence, human, 939 Interference of light waves, 235 Interference patterns, 929 Interferometry, 840, 998-1001 International Business Machines Corporation. See IBM Corporation International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), 537, 911, 996 International Practical Temperature Scale, 549 International Space Station, 460, 525-530 Internet, 530-534 Interpretation of Dreams, The (Artemidorus), 415 Interpretation of Dreams, The (Freud), 797 Intertropical Convergence Zone, 38 Introductio in analysin infinitorum (Euler), 518 Introns, 869 Intuitionist school, 880 Inverse method of tangents (Leibniz), 130 Inverse square law, 406, 557 Invisible College, 113 Io (moon of Jupiter), 353, 1018 Ionian philosophers, 415, 906 Ionization, 540; atmosphere, 534-538 Ionosphere, 534-538 Ions, 541 IPTS-68. See International Practical Temperature Scale Iridium, 613-614 Irrational numbers, 520 Irreversibility (thermodynamics), 980-981 Island universes, 151, 153, 314 Islets of Langerhans, 452, 513 Isotopes, 538-542, 678; plutonium, 772 Ivanovski, Dimitri, 1002 Jackson, Charles T., 19-20 James E. Webb Space Telescope, 459-460 Janowsky, David Steffan, 605 Jansky, Karl, 836, 839, 843, 999 Janssen, Zacharias, 637-638 Java man, 55, 469, 596, 722 Jeans, James, 757 Jeffreys, Alec, 241 Jeffreys, Harold, 757 Jenner, Edward, 236, 490, 914 Jerne, Niels K., 478 Jesty, Benjamin, 914 Jet stream, 193 Jobs, Steven, 738, 741 Jodrell Bank radio telescope, 833 Joe H. Engle, 922 Johanson, Donald C., 595, 598 Johnson, Torrence V., 351 Joliot, Frédéric, 675, 847, 849 Joliot-Curie, Irène, 675, 680, 847, 849 Jones, Jon W., Jr., 425 Jordan, Camille, 522 Josephson, Brian, 283 Joule, James Prescott, 979 Jupiter (planet), 542-547, 1016; Galileo mission, 355; ring, 1017 K/T boundary, 614 Kahn, Robert E., 530 Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike, 586, 588, 972, 975, 983 Kant, Immanuel, 757 Kapitsa, Peter, 45 Kaposi’s sarcoma, 7 Keith, Arthur, 809 Kelvin, Lord, 278, 319, 547, 850, 979 Kelvin temperature scale, 321, 547-550 Kennedy, John F., 257, 650, 745 Kennelly, Arthur Edwin, 534 Kepler, Johannes, 119, 126, 404, 437, 551-552, 604, 671, 696, 728, 883 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 405 Ketterer, Donald, 351 Khw3rizmt, al-, 224 Kibble, Tom, 969 Kinematics, medieval, 624 Kinetic theory of gases, 555-560 King, Charles Glen, 1006 Kirchhoff, Gustave, 927, 930 Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 236 Kite experiment (Franklin), 577-578, 703 Klebs, Edwin, 236, 887 Kleitman, Nathaniel, 863 Klitzing, Klaus von, 813 Knoop, Franz, 171 Koch, J. P., 193 Koch, Robert, 383 Köhler, Georges J. F., 478, 480 Kohlhase, Charles E., 1015 Kohrs, Richard, 525 Kolbe, Hermann, 31 Kolhörster, Werner, 206 Kölliker, Rudolf Albert von, 665 Kolmogorov, A. N., 581 Koobi Foora, Kenya, hominids, 597 Koprowski, Hilary, 775 Krakatoa eruption, 614, 960 Kranz, Eugene F., 525 Krebs, Hans Adolf, 171 Krebs cycle, 171-175 Kronecker, Leopold, 1 Kroto, Harry W., 122, 124 Kuhn, Thomas, 824 Kuiper, Gerhard Peter, 760 Kvenvolden, Keith, 14 Laeser, Richard P., 1015 Laetoli footprints, 1057 Laetoli hominids, 598 Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, 516 Lagrangian points, 460 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 560, 563 Lamarckian evolution, 560-565 Lancret, Michel-Ange, 873 Landau, Lev Davidovich, 671 Landau levels, 814 Landisman, Mark, 912 Landsteiner, Karl, 95, 98 Langebaan footprints, 566-568 Langerhans, Paul, 453, 513 Langlands program, 329 Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 73, 662-663, 757, 781, 979 Laplace coefficients, 783 Lapland Expedition (1736), 149 Large numbers law (James Bernoulli), 581 Lartet, Édouard Hippolyte, 210 Lartet, Louis, 210 Lascaux cave paintings, 568-572 Lasers, 572-575 Latour, Cagniard de, 383 Lattice structure of crystals, 1044 Laue, Max von, 1044 Laughlin, Robert Betts, 813 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 51, 134, 227, 561, 707, 709, 733, 751, 1019, 1021 Lawrence, Ernest O., 770 Leakey, Louis S. B., 596, 1056-1057 Leakey, Mary, 596, 1056-1057 Leakey, Richard E., 596 Leaning Tower of Pisa, 323 Learning, 670, 716-720 Leavitt, Henrietta Swan, 152, 310, 312 Lebesgue, Henri-Léon, 520 Lebreton, Jean-Pierre, 136 Leclerc, Georges-Louis. See Buffon, comte de Leestma, David C., 525 Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, 188, 637, 639, 941 Left brain, 938 Legendre, Adrien-Marie, 781 Lehmann, Inge, 261, 265, 268 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 516; calculus, 126, 129; logic, 104 Lemaître, Georges, 74, 310 Lemon juice, 1007 Lenard, Philipp, 287-288, 747, 1035 Lenticular rings, 759 Leonardo da Vinci, 330 Leoux, Henri, 32 Les Eyzies, 210 Levers, 484 Levi, Beppo, 59, 524 Levine, Philip A., 95 Levy, Sanford Edgar, 100 Lexis, Wilhelm, 582 Liber abaci (Leonardo of Pisa), 226 Lie, Sophus, 2 Liebig, Justus von, 383 Life, evolution of, 17 Light; coherent, 572-575; early studies, 696-700; particle nature of, 180, 232, 1024-1027; speed of, 932-936; wave nature of, 179, 825, 936, 1024-1027 Light-quanta hypothesis, 749 Light-years, 313 Lightning, 576-580, 703 Lightning rods, 577, 703 Linde, A. D., 506 Line test, 1013 Linkage (genetics), 365 Linked probabilities, 581-586 Linnaean classification, 80-84 Linnaeus, Carolus, 80, 82, 146, 319, 561 Linus, Franciscus, 114 Lippershey, Hans, 440 Liquid helium, 586-590 Lissajous orbit, 460 Lister, Joseph L., 23, 25, 191 Lithosphere, 762 Locke, John, 405, 408 Lockyer, Joseph Norman, 944 Lodestones, 273, 601 Löffler, Friedrich, 236, 887, 1002 Logic, 500; Boolean, 103-107; Democritus, 909; mathematical, 27, 105, 616-620, 878-881; Parmenides, 909. See also Boolean logic, Mathematical logic Logicist school, 880 Logos, 908 London, Fritz, 972 London, Heinz, 972 Long, Crawford Williamson, 19 Longitude, 590-595 Lorenz, Edward N., 160 Lovelock, James, 163 Low-temperature physics, 548, 589, 972-975, 983-986 Lowell, Percival, 340, 765 Lowell Observatory, 341, 765 Lower, Richard, 112, 116 Lubbock, John, 465 Lucy (hominid skeleton), 595-600 Luminosity, 947 Lungs, human, 803 Lyceum, 895 Lyell, Charles, 301, 373, 376, 465 Lymphocytes, 478 Lymphomas, 474, 478 Lystad, Verene, 317 Maanen, Adriaan van, 340 McCarthy, John, 30 McCollum, Elmer Verner, 1009 McCown, Theodore Doney, 809 McCulloch, Ernest Armstrong, 950 McDonald, Frank Bethune, 1039 McKenna, Regis, 738 Macleod, John James Rickard, 513 McMillan, Edwin Mattison, 769, 771 McWhir, J., 175 Maestlin, Michael, 119 Magic peaks, 123 Magnetic bottles, 998 Magnetic fields; Earth’s, 276, 379, 535, 912, 995; electricity with, 274, 277-283, 541; Saturn’s, 136. See also Geomagnetic reversals Magnetic reversals (Earth’s), 379-382 Magnetic storms, 919 Magnetism, 273, 277-283, 600-604 Mah3vtra, 225 Maiman, Theodore Harold, 572 Main sequence stars, 947 Maize, Earl H., 136 Malebranche, Nicolas, 214 Malpighi, Marcello, 92 Malthus, Thomas, 303 Manabe, Syukuro, 387 Mandelbrojt, Szolem, 108 Mandelbrot, Benoît, 333 Manhattan Project, 773 Manic depression, 604-607 Manual of Discipline, The (Dead Sea scroll), 218 Maps of the universe, 843-846, 1031-1034 Marconi, Guglielmo, 534 Marcy, Geoffrey W., 315 Marie Ampère, André, 273 Mariotte, Edmé, 42, 112 Mariotte’s law, 114 Markov, Andrey Andreyevich, 581 Markov chains, 581-586 Mars (planet), 545, 607-611; canals, 765 Mars Exploration Rovers, 607-611 Marsden, Ernest, 43 Martius, Carl, 171 Masers, 574 Masoretic texts, 221 Mass action law (Berthollet), 231 Mass-energy equation, 295, 509, 748 Mass extinctions, 612-616; asteroids, 695 Masursky (asteroid), 138 Mathematical Analysis of Logic, The (Boole), 105 Mathematical logic, 27, 105, 616-620; Russell’s paradox, 878-881 Mathematical structures, 111 Mathematics, 298; Greek, 415 Matson, Dennis L., 136 Matter waves, 890 Matthaei, J. H., 368 Matthews, Thomas A., 832 Matuyama, Motonori, 380 Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de, 149, 561 Maury, Matthew F., 910 Maxam, Allan, 248-249 Maximin condition, 357 Maxwell, James Clerk, 276, 282, 287, 555, 759 Mayan astronomy, 620-624 Mayan chronology, 622 Mayan number system, 224 Mayer, Adolf, 1002 Mayer, Julius Robert von, 979 Mayer, Robert, 754 Mayow, John, 112, 115 Mechanics, Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 214 Medici, Ferdinand II de’, 39 Medicine; Greece, 346, 414-419; Roman Empire, 345-350 Medieval physics, 624-628 Megaliths, 955 Meiosis, 169, 366 Meissner effect, 977 Meitner, Lise, 308, 680 Melissographia (Stelluti), 637 Mendel, Gregor Johann, 167, 364, 378, 628, 632, 789 Mendel’s Principles of Heredity (Bateson), 632 Mendeleyev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 733 Mendelian genetics, 168, 628-633, 789 Mental illness, 605, 796-801 Mephitic air, 134 Mercury barometer, 39-42 Mercury project, 256-261 Méré, chevalier de, 793 Meridiani Planum (Mars), 610 MERs. See Mars Exploration Rovers Mersenne, Marin, 724 Merz, Alfred, 642 Mesenchymal cells, 951 Messing, Joachim, 249 Metabolism; human, 171; plant, 751-756 Metaphysics (Aristotle), 898 Metchnikoff, Élie, 490 Meteor expedition, 642 Meteoritic dust, 613 Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series, The (Newton), 129 Meyer, Julius Lothar, 733 Michel, Helen, 612 Michelson-Morley experiment, 574 Microbes. See Microorganisms Microfossils, 14, 633-637 Micrographia (Hooke), 638 Microorganisms, 24, 383, 637-641, 941; soil, 965 Microscopes, 639 Microwave background radiation, 78, 201-206 Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 641-645, 764, 911 Midgley, Thomas, Jr., 164 Mid-oceanic ridges, 486, 641-645 Mid-oceanic rifts, 195 Milky Way galaxy, 151, 311, 337, 340, 837; gamma rays, 360; mapping of, 843; radio signals, 203, 842, 999 Miller, Stanley, 14, 17, 636 Millikan, Robert Andrews, 206, 684 Milne, John, 261 Milstein, César, 478 Mimas (moon of Saturn), 139, 445 Mind-body connection, 716-720 Miner, Ellis D., 1015 Minimax condition, 357 Minkowski, Rudolf, 671, 839 Minot, George, 515 Mir Space Station, 526 Mirzabekov, Andrei, 248 “Missing link,” 55 Mitchell, Robert, 136 Mitosis, 143, 169, 645-649 Mohorovi5i6, Andrija, 262, 265 Mohorovi5i6 Discontinuity, 267 Moivre, Abraham de, 69, 71 Molina, Mario José, 163, 165 Monists, 717 Monoclonal antibodies, 479-480 Montagnier, Luc, 474 Monte, Guidobaldo Marchese del, 322 Montreal Protocol, 715 Moon landing, 649-654 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 167, 363 Morgenstern, Oskar, 355 Morse, Samuel, 276 Morton, William Thomas Green, 19-20 Moseley, Henry, 1051 Moseley’s law, 1051 Mosquitoes as disease vectors, 1052 Mössbauer, Rudolf Ludwig, 654, 656 Mössbauer effect, 654-658; applications, 656 Motion, laws of, 64-69, 322-326; Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 215; Apollonius, 411; Aristotle, 625; medieval, 625; Sir Isaac Newton, 406; planetary, 550-555, 654, 728; relativity, 861. See also Gravitation Moulton, F. R., 757 Mount Vesuvius eruption, 785 Mount Wilson Observatory, 151, 311, 344, 456, 766, 843 Mr. Tompkins series (Gamow), 11 Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, 806 Muller, Hermann Joseph, 363 Müller, Johann, 627 Müller, Johannes, 142 Müller, Karl Alexander, 975 Mullis, Kary B., 241-242 Multiple proportions law (Dalton), 230 Multipotent cells, 951 Musgrave, F. Story, 455 Mutations, 364 Myers, Ronald, 936 Mythopoeic cosmologies, 906 Napoleon Bonaparte, 873 NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration Nash, John F., 355 Nash equilibrium, 357 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 257, 360, 526, 610, 922, 1040 National Human Genome Research Initiative, 471 Natural History, General and Particular (Buffon), 374 Natural selection, 303, 789 Navigation at sea, 591, 725 Neanderthals, 55, 393, 395, 569, 596, 658-661, 809 Nebular hypothesis, 662-664, 757 Needham, John Tuberville, 940 Ne’eman, Yuval, 827 Negative numbers, 223-226, 503 Neptunism, 992 Nernst, Walther, 983 Nernst heat theorem, 981, 983-986 Neumann, John von, 27, 355 Neurons, 605, 664-670, 951 Neurosis, 798 Neurotransmitters, 605 Neutrinos, 294, 308 Neutron stars, 87, 360, 671-675, 807, 846, 949, 1041 Neutrons, 675-679 Neuville, René Victor, 809 New Astronomy (Kepler), 439, 553 New Atlantis, The (Bacon), 903 New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and Its Effects (Boyle), 42, 114 New Math, 107-108 Newlands, John Alexander Reina, 733 Newton, Isaac, 71, 85, 214, 232, 235, 401, 404, 420, 437, 442, 551, 692, 696, 724, 727; calculus, 126, 129 Neyman, Jerzy, 337 Nicholas of Cusa, 627 Nicollier, Claude, 455, 458 Nirenberg, Marshall W., 368, 371 Nisenson, Peter, 315 Nitrogen, 1022 Noble, R. G., 682 Noddack, Ida, 680 Noether, Emmy, 4 Nölke, Friedrich, 760 Nollet, Jean-Antoine, 700, 703 Nonlinear phenomena, 335 Normal curve, 69-74 Nousek, John, 359 Novae, 152, 671 Novum Organum (Francis Bacon), 900, 903 NSFnet, 531 Nuclear chain reaction, 681 Nuclear fission, 678-683, 770, 849 Nuclear fusion, 948 Nuclear transfer, 177 Nucleolus of the cell, 142 Nucleons, 678 Nucleotides, 248 Nucleus, atomic, 10, 42-47 Number, concept of, 223 Number theory, 327, 503 Numbers, 503 Nutation of Earth’s axis, 934 Nutcracker man, 596, 1056 Nuttall, George, 95 Oakley, Kenneth Page, 58 Oberon (moon of Uranus), 445 Oberth, Hermann, 455-456 Obstetrics, 496-499, 704-707 Ocean basins, 910 Oceanic hot springs, 485-490 O’Connor, Bryan D., 525 Odierna, Giovanni Battista, 884 Odysseus, 987 Oedipus complex, 798 Ohm, E. A., 203 Oil-drop experiment, 683-687 Old Testament, 221 Oldenburg, Henry, 637-638 Oldham, Richard Dixon, 265 Oldowan tool tradition, 1056 Olduvai Gorge, 596, 1056 On Divisions of Figures (Euclid), 298 On Floating Bodies (Archimedes), 484 On Motion (Galileo), 323 On the Natural Faculties (Galen), 346 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 304, 465, 646 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. See De revolutionibus On the Size and Distance of the Sun and the Moon (Aristarchus of Samos), 410 On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body (Galen), 346 Oncogenes, 687-691 O’Neil, William J., 351 Oneirocritica. See Interpretation of Dreams, The (Artemidorus) Oort, Jan Hendrik, 691, 845 Oort Cloud, 691-696 Oparin, Aleksandr Ivanovich, 17, 867 Opera geometrica (Torricelli), 40 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 88 Opportunity (Mars Exploration Rover), 608 Optics, 696-700 Optics (Newton), 698 Oresme, Nicholas, 625 Organ transplantation. See Hand transplantation; Heart transplantation Ørsted, Hans Christian, 273, 277 Orthogonal Polynomials, 782 Osborne, Thomas Burr, 1009 Osiander, Andreas, 196, 198 Osmosis, 700-704 Ova transfer, 704-707 Oxygen, 707-711, 942, 1020; in combustion, 115; photosynthesis, 753 Oxygen cycle, 753 Ozone, 163, 165, 712 Ozone hole, 166, 711-716 Ozone layer, 712, 1039 P-n junctions, 284 Pacal (Mayan ruler), 621 Pacini, Franco, 807 Palenque, 620 Paleomagnetism, 379 Palitzsch, Johann Georg, 420 Palomar Observatory, 338, 833, 842 Pancreas, 451, 453, 513 Pangaea, 194, 910 Parallax method of measuring stellar distances, 151-152, 934 Parallel Postulate, 297 Parker, Eugene N., 919 Parkes Radio Telescope, 833 Parmenides, 905, 909 Parsons, William, 445 Partial pressures law (Dalton), 53 Particle accelerators, 292, 400, 819, 831 Particle nature of light, 232, 697 Particle physics, 292-296, 819, 827-832; birth of, 289 Partition principle (Bernstein), 63 Pascal, Blaise, 39, 126-127, 793 Pascal’s triangle, 794 Passive immunity, 240 Pasteur, Louis, 23, 191, 382, 384, 942 Pasteurization, 383 Pati, Jogesh, 397 Pauli, Wolfgang, 306, 308 Pauling, Linus, 252, 1008 Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 349, 451, 716, 718 Pavlovian reinforcement, 716-720 Pawsey, J. L., 839 PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction Peano, Giuseppe, 59, 62, 616 Pearson, George, 914 Peebles, P. J., 202, 204 Peking man, 596, 720-724 Pendulum Clock, The (Huygens), 724 Pendulum clocks, 592, 725, 933 Pendulums, 724-728 Penicillin, 729-733 Penzias, Arno, 77, 201-202, 1031 Peregrinus, Peter, 600 Period-luminosity scale, 152, 311-312 Periodic table of elements, 48, 52, 75, 733-738; Moseley’s law, 1051 Perrin, Jean-Baptiste, 288 Personal computers, 531, 738-742 Pesticide toxicity, 742-746 Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 701, 702 Phagocytosis, 490-496 Phase stability, 771 Phase switching, 840 Phillips, Robert, 525 Philoponus, John, 625 Phipps, James, 914 Phlogiston theory, 134, 709-710, 1020 Phoebe (moon of Saturn), 138 Phosphorus 30, 848 Photoelectric effect, 180, 747-750, 826, 1025 Photons, 180, 749, 825, 1025 Photosynthesis, 751-756 Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride (Grimaldi), 235 Physics; Middle Ages, 624-628 Physics (Aristotle), 625 Pi-meson, 830 Pickering, William, 766 Piltdown man, 56, 58 Place-value numeral systems, 223 Planck, Max, 48, 179, 306, 547, 747, 821, 824, 891, 1024 Planck’s constant, 48, 824-825, 1026 Planet (definition), 694 Planet X, 766 Planetary formation, 756-761 Planetary motion; Apollonius, 411; Kepler’s laws, 550-555, 728 Planetesimals, 759 Planets, extrasolar, 315-318 Plants, photosynthesis, 751-756 Plasmids, 855 Plate boundaries, 762 Plate tectonics, 192-196, 486, 761-765; magnetic reversals, 379; Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 641-645; seafloor spreading, 910-914 Platinum resistance thermometer, 549 Plato, 895; on Hippocrates, 416 Playfair, John, 991 Pleistocene epoch, 58, 194 Plum pudding model of the atom, 43 Pluripotent cells, 951 Pluto, 694, 765-769; discovery, 767 Plutonism, 992 Plutonium, 683, 769-773 Pneuma, theory of, 347 Pneumatic chemistry, 710 Pneumocystis carinii, 6 Poincaré, Henri, 522 Poisson, Siméon-Denis, 275, 979 Polarization, 1049 Polio vaccine; Sabin, 773-777; Salk, 777-780 Poliomyelitis, 773-780 Polymerase chain reaction, 242, 244 Polymers, 368, 867 Polynomials, 781-784 Polynucleotides, 868 Pompeii excavation, 784-789 Population genetics, 789-792 Population growth, 303 Porisms (Euclid), 299 Positive numbers, 503 Positrons, 847 Possel, René de, 108 Posterior Analytics (Aristotle), 896-897 Postulates (Koch), 385, 1002 Potential infinity, 60 Pound, Robert Vivian, 654 Precambrian era, 14 Precambrian life, 635 Pressure. See Atmospheric pressure; Gas pressure Priam’s treasure, 989 Priestley, Joseph, 135, 707, 709, 751, 942, 1019 Primordial soup, 17, 636, 867 Principia (Newton), 130, 405, 421, 698; influence on Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 215 Principia Mathematica (Russell and Whitehead), 501, 619, 880 “Principle of Equivalence” (Einstein), 862 Principles of Chemistry (Mendeleyev), 734 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 375 Prior Analytics (Aristotle), 898 Prisms, 697 Probability theory, 69, 356, 581, 793-796 Proconsul, 1056 Project Mercury, 256-261 Projectile motion, 66, 324 Prokaryotes, 636 Protein metabolism, 171 Proteins, 368, 871; amino acids, 867 Proterozoic era, 14 Protons, 272, 289, 399, 541, 677, 847 Protozoa, 638 Proust, Joseph-Louis, 51, 227, 230 Proust-Berthollet debate, 229 Pseudaria (Euclid), 299 Psychoanalysis, 796-801 Ptolemaic model of the universe, 197, 438, 551 Ptolemy (astronomer), 66, 197, 409, 413, 437 Ptolemy V Ephiphanes, 876 Pulmonary circulation, 801-805 Pulsars, 674, 805-808, 846 Punctuated equilibrium, 305 Punnett, Reginald Crundall, 628 Punnett squares, 630 Purcell, Edward Mills, 845 Purdy, Jean M., 496 Purkyne, Jan Evangelista, 142 Pyrometer, 840 Pythagoras, 520, 905, 908 Pythagorean theorem, 327 Quantized Hall effect, 813-818 Quantum chromodynamics, 398, 818-821 Quantum electronics, 436 Quantum mechanics, 12, 434, 819, 821-827, 892; probability, 893; quantized Hall effect, 814; superconductivity, 973 Quantum theory, 48, 180, 291, 306, 433-437, 749, 823-824, 1027, 1051; Schrödinger’s wave equation, 890-894. See also Quantum mechanics Quarks, 819, 827-832 Quasars, 806, 832-835, 845, 1001 Qumran caves, 218 Rabies vaccine, 384 Rabinowitz, David, 694 Radar, 537 Radiation, atmospheric, 206. See also specific types Radiation belts (Earth’s), 995-998 Radio astronomy, 203, 806, 832, 836-838, 999; galactic sources, 839-843 Radio galaxies, 839-843 Radio maps of the universe, 843-846, 1031-1034 Radio telescopes, 806, 833, 836, 839, 841, 844, 999 Radio waves, 534, 999; ionospheric, 536 Radioactive clocks, 851 Radioactive elements, 846-850 Radioactivity, 539, 850 Radiocarbon dating, 811 Radiometric dating, 850-854 Radiosondes, 38 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 665, 669 Ramsay, William, 737 Rapid eye movements, 863-866 Rasio, Frederic A., 317 Rask, Grete, 6 Raspail, François Vincent, 144 Rational mechanics, 214 Rational numbers, 503 Raup, David Malcolm, 612 Ravidat, Marcel, 569 Ray, John, 80 Rayleigh, Lord, 737 Rayleigh-Jeans expression, 823 Real numbers, 503 Réaumur, René-Antoine Ferchault de, 319 Reber, Grote, 836, 839, 843 Rebka, Glen A., 654 Recombinant DNA technology, 854-859 Recursion, 794 Red stars, 948 Redi, Francesco, 940 Redshifts, 311, 343, 655, 834, 931; galaxies, 151; Sirius B, 156. See also Doppler shifts Reed, Walter, 1052 Reflection, 235 Refraction, 232, 235, 697 Regiomontanus, 627 Reinforcement, Pavlovian, 716-720 Relativity, 180, 859-863, 936; general, 85, 284, 402, 654, 860; Christiaan Huygens, 727; special, 748, 860 Religious persecution, 68, 198, 802. See also Inquisition REM sleep, 863-866 Remak, Robert, 142 Renaissance science, 900 Reproductive medicine, 496-499, 704-707 Respiration, 753 Reticular theory of the nervous system, 665 Retroviruses, 474, 690 Rheticus, 196, 198 Ribonucleic acid. See RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 868 Ribozymes, 866-872 Riccioli, Giambattista, 233 Rickets, 1010; and breast-feeding, 1011 Riemann, Bernhard, 449 Riemann, Georg, 500, 521 Right brain, 938 Rings of Saturn, 139, 881-887 Riolan, Jean, 89, 93 Ritchie, W. A., 175 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 248, 370, 857, 867, 871 RNA genes, 869 RNA world, 870-871 RNase P, 871-872 Roberts, David, 566 Roberval, Gilles Personne de, 884 Rockets, 995, 1040 Roman Catholic Church, 200 Roman civilization, 786; medicine, 345-350 Rømer, Ole, 148, 319, 932, 935 Roming, Pete, 359 Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 287, 1035, 1044, 1047 Röntgen X-Ray Satellite, 1041 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 780 Rosas, Antonio, 393 Roscoe, Henry, 51 Rosetta stone, 872-878; text, 876 Roslin Institute, 175 Rossby, Carl-Gustav, 35, 38, 1028 Rothé, Jean P., 911 Rous sarcoma, 689 Rous, Peyton, 688 Roux, Pierre-Paul-Émile, 236, 887 Roux, Wilhelm, 645 Rowland, F. Sherwood, 163 Royal Institution, 279 Royal Society, 638 Rubbia, Carlo, 292 Rudolf II, 120, 551 Ruelle, David, 162 Runcorn, Keith, 912 Russell, Bertrand, 106, 499, 616, 878 Russell, Henry Norris, 944 Russell’s paradox, 618, 878-881 Rutherford, Daniel, 131 Rutherford, Ernest, 10, 43, 45, 47, 306, 539, 675-676, 850 Ryle, Martin, 808, 839, 841, 999 Sabin, Albert Bruce, 774 Sagnac, Georges, 1048 Saint-Vincent, Jean-Baptiste Bory de, 561 Salam, Abdus, 292, 397 Salicylic acid, 32 Salk, Jonas Edward, 474, 774, 777 Salvarsan, 495 Salyut 1, 526 Sandage, Allan, 832, 841 Sanger, Frederick, 248 Santorio, Santorio, 322 Sarcomas, 7, 689 Sarpi, Paolo, 323 Saturn (planet), 445, 1017; rings, 139, 881-887 Saussure, Nicolas de, 751 Savart, Felix, 273 Savitch, Paul, 680 Sawyer, Wilbur Augustus, 1052 Scattering theory, 291 Sceptical Chymist, The (Boyle), 114 Schawlow, Arthur L., 572 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 707 Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 765 Schick, Béla, 887 Schick test, 887-890 Schirra, Walter M. (Wally), 257 Schleiden, Matthias, 142 Schliemann, Heinrich, 986 Schlosser, Max, 721 Schmidt, Maarten, 832 Schneider, Stephen Henry, 387 Schopf, J. William, 14-15 Schreier, Otto, 4 Schrieffer, J. Robert, 972, 976 Schrödinger, Erwin, 309, 434, 890, 893, 1024 Schrödinger’s cat, 893 Schrödinger’s wave equation, 890-894, 1027 Schurmeier, Harris M., 1015 Schwann, Theodor, 142 Schwarzschild, Karl, 85-86 Schwarzschild radius, 86, 88 Schwarzschild singularity, 88 Scientific method; Aristotle, 894-899; Francis Bacon, 899-905; Greece, 905-910 Scopes trial, 469 Scorpius X-1, 1040 Scott, Elizabeth Leonard, 337 Scurvy, 1006 Seaborg, Glenn Theodore, 769 Seafloor spreading, 195, 486, 764, 910-914 Secchi, Angelo, 945 Sedna (Oort Cloud object), 694 Seebeck, Thomas Johann, 547 Segregation of alleles, 169 Seismic waves, 261, 266 Seismology, 261, 266 Selective breeding, 303 Semiconductors, 283, 813 Semmelweiss, Ignaz Philipp, 23 Senebier, Jean, 751 Sepkoski, John, 612 Sequencing DNA. See DNA sequencing Sergeyevsky, Andrei B., 1015 Serotherapy, 240 Servetus, Michael, 801-802 Set theory, 60, 108, 504, 522, 618, 878 Sewall, Henry, 236 Sex-linked heredity, 365 Sexual selection, 469 Seysenegg, Erich Tschermak von, 629 Shane, Charles Donald, 337 Shanklin, Jonathan, 712 Shapley, Harlow, 151-152, 313, 337, 340, 843 Shattock, Samuel, 96 Sheep cloning, 175 Shelburne, Lord, 708 Shepard, Alan B., 256 Shockley, William, 283 Shoemaker, Carolyn, 351 Shoemaker, Eugene M., 351, 612 Shoemaker-Levy 9 (comet), 352 Shoenberg, David, 973 Sidereal Messenger, The (Galileo), 440 Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg, 1051 Sierpi½ski, Vacuaw, 63 Silent Spring (Carson), 743, 745 Silicon, 813 Silicon chips, 284 Sima de los Huesos, 393 Simpson, James Young, 23, 25-26 Single-fluid theory of electricity, 187, 269, 577 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 473 Sirius B (star), 156 Skellett, Albert Melvin, 836 Skhul cave, 810 Slayton, Donald K., 257 Sleep, 863-866 Sleep deprivation, 866 Slipher, Vesto Melvin, 151, 310, 340 Small Astronomy Satellites, 1040 Smalley, Richard E., 122 Smallpox vaccine, 237, 490, 914-918 Smith, Adam, 408 Smith, Bradford A., 1015 Smith, Francis Graham, 839 Smith, Hugh, 854, 1052 Smith, Marcia, 351 Snyder, Hartland, 88 Social Darwinism, 468 Soddy, Frederick, 45, 538, 851 Soderblom, Laurence, 1015 Soil microbes, 965 Solar corona, 920 Solar flares, 920 Solar spectrum, 927-932 Solar system; origins, 662-664 Solar wind, 918-922, 996 Sommerfeld, Arnold, 433 Sony Corporation, 284 Space shuttle, 922-926 Space shuttle mission STS 1, 924 Space shuttle mission STS 2, 924 Space shuttle mission STS 61, 458 Space shuttle mission STS 114, 925 Space-time, 85, 402, 654, 748, 862, 970 Space travel and aging, 259 Spaeth, Mary, 572 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 190, 940 Special theory of relativity, 748, 860 Species, theories of, 80, 561 Spectra; blackbody, 822; infrared, 931; optical light, 699; quasars, 833; stellar, 947; Sun, 928 Spectral emissions, 49, 929 Spectral lines, 307, 930 Spectroscopy, 927-932 Speed of light, 932-936; under water, 236 Spencer, Herbert, 468 Sperry, Roger W., 936 Spilker, Linda J., 136 Spiral nebulae, 151, 337, 340 Spirit (Mars Exploration Rover), 608 Spitzer space telescope, 694 Split-brain experiments, 936-939 Spontaneous generation, 144, 190, 386, 561, 639, 940-944 Sputnik 1, 530, 996 Squyres, Steve, 608 Stabiae, 785 Stability theorem, 358 Stahl, Georg, 709 Staining techniques, 640, 666 Star catalogs, 421 Star maps, 421, 725 Stark, Benjamin, 871 Starling, Ernest Henry, 451 Stars; life cycles, 671, 944-950; types, 947. See also Stellar Statistics, 560, 581 Steady-state universe, 77 Steam engines, 980 Steinhardt, Paul J., 506 Steinitz, Ernst, 1, 63 Stellaburg, 120 Stellar aberration, 934 Stellar death, 87 Stellar evolution, 671, 944-950 Stellar formation, 970 Stellar interiors, 156 Stelluti, Francesco, 637 Stem cells, 28, 950-955 Steno, Nicholas, 330, 332 Steptoe, Patrick Christopher, 496 Stewart, Balfour, 534 Stirling, James, 72 Stochastic cooling, 294 Stoicheia. See Elements Stokes, George Gabriel, 614, 1047-1048 Stokes’s law, 1050 Stone, Edward, 31 Stone, Edward C., Jr., 1015 Stonehenge, 955-959 Storms, 1029; Jupiter, 542-547 Strangeness, 830 Strasburger, Éduard, 645 Strassmann, Fritz, 680, 770 Stratigraphy, 331, 376, 992; Nicholas Steno’s principles, 332 Stratosphere, 960-965 Streptomycin, 965-968 String theory, 969-972 Strong force, 292, 294, 398, 820, 831 Strugnell, John, 218 STS. See Space shuttle Stukeley, William, 955 Sturgeon, William, 276 Sturtevant, Alfred Henry, 363 Subatomic particles, 828 Subjectivists, 717 Sukenik, Eliezer, 217 Sun; mass of, 412. See also Solar Superclusters of galaxies, 336-339, 842 Superconductivity, 286, 588, 817, 971-975, 985; high-temperature, 975-978 Superego (Freud), 798 Superfluidity, 590, 986 Supernovae, 87, 671; in 1572, 118-122; and neutron stars, 671 Surface-Loci (Euclid), 299 Surgery; hand, 425-429; heart, 429-433; pre-Listerian, 23 Sutton, Walter S., 167 Svirbely, Joseph L., 1006 Swammerdam, Jan, 637-638 Swift Gamma Ray Observatory, 361 Swineshead, Richard, 625 Switching devices, 283 Syllogisms, 104, 898 Syphilis, 188-189, 493, 730, 732 Syphilis (Fracastoro), 188-189 System of the World (Laplace), 662 Systema Saturnium (Huygens), 884 Szent-Györgyi, Albert, 171, 1006 Szilard, Leo, 680 Tabe, Isshi, 546 Tabun cave, 810 Taieb, Maurice, 596 Takens, Floris, 162 Taniyama-Shimura conjecture, 328 Tartaglia, Niccolò Fontana, 64, 67 Taung child, 56-57, 596, 723 Taussig, Helen Brooke, 100-101 Taxonomy, 80-84 Taylor, Frank Bursley, 192 Taylor, Richard L., 327 Telegraph, 276 Telemedicine, 529 Telescopes, 440; Giuseppe Campani, 543; Galileo, 440, 882; William Herschel, 443-447; Christiaan Huygens, 882; Isaac Newton, 698; William Parsons, 445; radio, 806, 833, 839, 844, 999; space, 455-461; X-ray, 1040 Teller, Edward, 11 Telomeres, 176 Telstar (communications satellite), 203 Temin, Howard M., 688 Temperature scales; Celsius, 146-150, 320; Fahrenheit, 318-322; Kelvin, 321, 547-550 Temple of the Inscriptions (Palenque), 621 Ter Haar, D., 760 Test-tube babies, 496-499 Tetanus, 239 Thales of Miletus, 905-906 Theiler, Max, 1052 Theogony (Hesiod), 906 Theophrastus, 80 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (von Neumann and Morgenstern), 357 Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 374 Thermodynamics, 979-983; first law, 979, 981, 984, 1162; second law, 980-981; third law, 981, 983-986 Thermoluminescence, 811 Thermometers; Celsius, 146-150, 320; Fahrenheit, 147, 318-322; Kelvin, 321, 547-550; Rømer, 319, 935 Thomas, Vivien, 100-101 Thomson, James, 950 Thomson, Joseph John, 43, 47, 272, 287, 289, 403, 538, 540, 747, 1047-1048 Thomson, Thomas, 51 Thomson, William. See Kelvin, Lord Thornton, Kathryn C., 455 Till, James Edgar, 950 Titan (moon of Saturn), 138, 883 Titania (moon of Uranus), 445 Titanic recovery, 487 Tobacco mosaic virus, 1003, 1004 Todd, Alexander, 252 Tolstoy, Ivan, 912 Tombaugh, Clyde William, 765, 767 Torricelli, Evangelista, 39 Torricellian vacuum, 40 Totipotent cells, 951 Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 80 Townes, Charles Hard, 202, 572, 574 Toxins, 492; as disease-causing agents, 236-241, 887 Tractatus de quadratura curvarum (Newton), 129 Trade winds, 35 Trafton, Wilber, 525 Traité du dynamique (d’Alembert), 215 Trajectory motion, 66, 324 Transfinite numbers, 61 Transfusions, 96 Transistors, 283, 436, 973 Transmission by contact law, 666 Transplantation; embryo, 704; hand, 425-429; heart, 429-433 Transuranic elements, 679, 770 Treatise on Proportions (Bradwardine), 625 Trigonometric functions, 782 Trigonometric series, 521 Trilithons, 957 Triton (moon of Neptune), 1018 Trojan War, 990 Troposphere, 960-965 Troy, excavation of, 986-990 Trujillo, Chad, 694 Truly, Richard H., 922 Tuberculosis, 966 Tuberville, John, 941 Tumor cells, 479 Tumors, viral, 687-691 Tunnel diodes, 285 Tunneling, alpha, 12 Tunneling of electrons, 283-286 Turing, Alan M., 27-28 Turing machine, 28-29 Turing test, 30 Turok, Neil, 969 Twenty-three problems (Hilbert), 447-450 Two-fluid theory of electricity, 187, 269, 577 Twort, Frederick, 1005 Tychonic model of the universe, 439 Tyler, G. Leonard, 1015 Tyler, Stanley Allen, 634 Tylor, Edward B., 465 Uhlenbeck, George, 306 Uhuru satellite, 1040 Ultraviolet radiation, 712 Uncertainty principle, 433-437 Unconditioned reflexes, 719 Unconscious (Freud), 797 Undetermined coefficients principle, 781 Unified field theory. See Grand unified theory Uniformitarianism; James Hutton, 991-995; Charles Lyell, 373-379 Universal gravitation. See Gravitation Universal Turing machine. See Turing machine Upsilon Andromedae, 316 Uqltdist, al-, 225 Uraniborg, 120 Uranium, 681, 770, 851, 1048 Uranus (planet), 445 Urban VIII, 440 Urey, Harold C., 17, 636 V-2 rockets, 995, 1040 Vaccination, 237 Vaccines, 1002; anthrax, 385; diphtheria antitoxin, 236-241, 888; polio, 773-780; smallpox, 490, 914-918; yellow fever, 1052-1055 Vacuums; Aristotle on, 625; Boylean, 113; Philoponus on, 625; Torricellian, 40 Valentin, Gabriel Gustav, 142 Valladas, Helène, 809 Value of All Chances in Games of Fortune, The (Huygens), 795 Van Allen, James, 995 Van Allen radiation belts, 995-998 Van Calcar, Jan Steven, 463 Van der Meer, Simon, 292 Vandermeersch, Bernard, 809 Van der Waals, Johannes, 555 Vane, John Robert, 31 Van Helmont, Jan, 751 Van Maanen, Adriaan, 151 Van’t Hoff, Jacobus, 701 Variable number tandem repeats, 244 Variable stars, 152 Variolation, 914 Varmus, Harold E., 688 Vaucouleurs, Gérard Henri de, 337 Vaux, Roland De, 217 Vela satellites, 359 Venous valves, 92 Venter, J. Craig, 471 Venus (planet), 351 Very long baseline interferometry, 998-1001 Vesalius, Andreas, 90, 462 Vesuvius eruption, 785 Vexler, Vladimir I., 771 Vine-Matthews hypothesis, 381 Virchow, Rudolf, 142, 145, 658 Viruses, 474-477, 1002-1005; and antibodies, 481; oncogenes, 687-691; polio, 774, 778; smallpox, 915; yellow fever, 1052-1055 Vitalism, 145, 940 Vitamin C, 1005-1009 Vitamin D, 1009-1015 Vitruvius, 482 Viviani, Vincenzio, 323 VNTRs. See Variable number tandem repeats Vogel, Hermann Karl, 945 Volcanoes; Krakatoa, 960; at plate boundaries, 486; shapers of Earth, 374; Vesuvius, 785 Voltaire, 408 Voyager missions, 1015-1019; Voyager 1, 1016; Voyager 2, 1016 Vries, Hugo de, 364, 628 W particles, 293 Wagner, Rudolf, 142 Waksman, Selman Abraham, 965 Walcott, Charles Doolittle, 634 Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 645, 665 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 301, 465 Wallis, John, 126 Walvis Ridge, 643 Warrawoona group, 15 Washkansky, Louis, 429 Wassermann test, 493 Watanabe, Junichi, 546 Water; composition of, 1019-1024; electricity and, 701; on Mars, 610 Water displacement, 481-485 Watson, James D., 252 Watt, James, 132, 1019 Wattenberg, Hermann, 642 Wave equation (Schrödinger), 890-894 Wave mechanics, 308, 825 Wave nature of light, 179, 699 Wave-particle debate, 181, 287 Wave-particle duality of light, 1024-1027 Weak force, 292, 294, 398 Weather balloons, 38 Weather fronts, 1027-1030 Weather patterns, 160-163 Webb Space Telescope, 459-460 Weber, Carl Jacob, 784 Weber, Heinrich, 1 Wedderburn, Joseph, 1 Wegener, Alfred Lothar, 192-193, 266, 644, 761, 910 Weidenreich, Franz, 721 Weierstrass, Karl, 1, 521 Weil, André, 108, 110 Weil, Richard, 98 Weinberg, Steven, 292, 397 Weinberg, Wilhelm, 789 Weiner, Alexander S., 95 Weisman, Joel, 6 Weismann, August, 645 Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich von, 757 Well-ordering principle, 63 Wells, Horace, 19-20 Weng Zhong Bei, 721 Werner, Abraham Gottlob, 374, 991 Wetherald, Richard, 387 Wheels Of Zeus (WOZ), 741 Whipple, Fred, 691 White dwarf stars, 87, 155-160, 949 White, Nicholas, 359 White, Tim, 595, 1057 Whitehead, Alfred North, 501, 616, 880 Wiechert, Emil, 266 Wien, Wilhelm, 289, 821 Wigginton, Randy, 738 Wilberforce, Samuel, 304 Wiles, Andrew J., 327 Wilkins, Maurice H. F., 252-253 Wilkinson, David T., 1031 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, 1031-1034 Williams, Donald E., 351 Willow bark, 32 Wilmut, Ian, 175 Wilson, Charles Thomson Rees, 287, 290 Wilson, Robert, 77, 201, 202, 1031 Wilson cloud chamber, 290 Wiltshire prehistoric sites, 955 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 784 Wirtanen, Carl Alvar, 337 Witten, Edward, 969 WMAP. See Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Wollaston, William H., 927 Wolpoff, Milford, 660, 812 Wonder drugs; aspirin, 34; penicillin, 731-732; streptomycin, 965-968 Woodborne, Stephan, 566 Woodville, William, 914 World Health Organization, 6 Wormholes, 863 WOZ. See Wozniak, Stephen; Wheels Of Zeus Wozniak, Stephen, 738, 741 Wren, Christopher, 406, 420 Wright, Almroth Edward, 494 Wright, Edward, 600 Wüst, Georg, 642 X radiation; Compton effect, 179-183; discovery, 288, 1035-1039 X-ray astronomy, 1039-1043 X-ray crystallography, 1043-1047, 1051 X ray diffraction, 1044 X-ray fluorescence, 1047-1052 X-ray images, 1036 X-ray scattering, 180-181, 1048-1049 Xenophanes, 905, 907 XMM-Newton (satellite), 1041 Yellow fever vaccine, 1052-1055 Yersin, Alexandre, 236, 887 Young, John W., 922 Young, Richard E., 351 Young, Thomas, 236, 872, 927 Young, William Henry, 520 Z particles, 293 Zaug, Arthur J., 866 Zdansky, Otto, 721 Zeeman, Pieter, 290, 307 Zeeman effect, 307 Zehnder, Ludwig, 1035 Zeno’s paradoxes of motion, 61 Zermelo, Ernst, 63, 355 Zero, concept of, 224 Zero-sum theory, 356 Zhoukoudian excavations, 722 Zinjanthropus boisei, 596, 1055-1059 Zinn, Walter Henry, 679, 682 Zoological Philosophy (Lamarck), 560, 563 Zweig, George, 827 Zwicky, Fritz, 671 |
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