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Editor: Edited by John Powell,    Oklahoma Baptist University ISBN: 978-1-58765-279-0 List Price: $175 May 2006 · 2 volumes · 1,144 pages · 8"x10" Combines Print & Online Access Great Events from History: The 18th Century Index A priori knowledge (Kant), 658 Aarau, Treaty of (1712), 97 Abd al-Hamid I, 506 Abd All3h Z3khir, 27 Abercromby, Ralph, 903 Abolition movement     colonial America, 578-581     England, 2     missionaries, 827     United States, 623-625     worldwide, 2     See also Antislavery movement    Slave trade    Slavery Abolition of Slavery, Pennsylvania Society for the     See Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery Aboukir Bay, Battle of     See Nile, Battle of the Absolute monarchy, 32, 275, 411, 439, 576, 849     See also Monarchy Abury (Stukeley), 140 Académie des Sciences     See Academy of Sciences, France Académie Française     See Academy of Sciences, France    French Academy Academy of Experiment, Florence, 488 Academy of Sciences, France, 134, 217, 231, 269, 293, 304, 319, 332, 339, 353, 684, 756, 878 Academy of Sciences, Germany, 276 Academy of Sciences, Russia     See St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Russia Academy of Surgery and Medicine, France, 775 Acadia, 30, 383, 559, 676 Acadians, 383-385 Acapulco, Mexico, 919 Account of Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophical Discoveries (Maclaurin), 270 Achard, Franz Karl, 316 Acids, industrial, 306 Ackermann, Rudolph, 898 Act for Preventing the Conspiracy of Slaves (1708), 93 Act of _______     See specific name Act of 1780, 714 Adam, James, 328 Adam, Robert, 328 Adams, John, 531, 568, 593, 606, 615, 680, 758, 778, 887, 895, 908 Adams, Samuel, 494, 550, 568 Addison, Joseph, 52, 80 Addresses to the German Nation (Fichte), 814 Adet, Pierre, 887 Admiralty (Royal Navy), 367 Adrianople, Treaty of (1713), 78 Adventism, 781 Advertising in newspapers, 623 Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor Hoch, 409 Aesthetica in nuce (Hamann), 543 Aesthetics     classical, 327     and French salons, 243     Kantian, 659     and manufacturing, 414 Affinités (chemical attractions), 134 Afghan independence, 69-71 Africa     exploration of, 513-515     map, xlii     slave trade, 818 African American Baptist Church, 545-547 African American churches, 782 African Americans     in Canada, 547     organizations, 693, 734-737 African Methodist Episcopal Church     See AME Church African slave traders, 1 “African Slavery in America”    (Paine), 598 African slaves, 1, 92, 106, 210, 262-263, 316, 578, 623, 656, 694, 782, 803, 830, 837 Age of Reason     See Enlightenment #gh3 Mowammad Kh3n, 176 Agnesi, Maria Gaetana, 318 Agrarianism in China, 831 Agricultural Revolution     England, 902     farmworkers, 870-872     Scotland, 753-755 Agriculture     Caribbean, 657     Japan, 154, 722     livestock breeding, 427-429     mechanization, 7-10     threshing, 753-755 Awmad ibn Sa4td, 341 Awmad Sh3h Durr3nt, 69 Ahmed III, 77, 136 Ahmed Efendi, 334 Ahutoru, 485 Air, 565 Air pollution     hydrogen chloride, 757 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of (1748), 102, 278, 282, 336-338, 404 Ako Incident (1701-1703), 16-18 #l Bn Sa4td Dynasty, 341-343 Alapainui (Hawaiian ruler), 673 Alaska    exploration of, 194-197    map, 195 Alaung Phra     See Alaungpaya Alaungpaya, 360 Albany Congress (1754), 376-379, 463, 569 Albany Group (Mohawk River Valley), 609 Albigensian Crusade (1209-1213), 34 Albinism, 353 Alceste (Gluck and Calzabigi), 442 Alchemy, 134, 168 Alcubierre, Roque Joachim de, 325 Aleixo de Abreu, 366 Alekseyevich, Pyotr     See Peter the Great Alekseyevna, Yekaterina     See Catherine the Great Alembert, Jean le Rond d’, 158, 293, 321, 354, 878 Alembert’s principle (mechanics), 294 Alexander, James, 233 Alexander I, 748, 892 Alexander of the North     See Charles XII Algebra, 319, 686 Algebraic expressions, 323-325 Algerine-Spanish War (1775), 573-575 Algonquians, 123, 375 4Alt Mnrad Kh3n, 176 Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), 908-911 Alingar, Treaty of (1757), 397 Alivardi Khan, 397 Alkali Act (1863), 757 “All men are created equal,”    617 Allamand, Jean, 304 Allen, Ethan, 585, 627 Allen, Richard, 734 Allgemeines Gesetzbuch, 850 Allgemeines Landrecht, 849-851 Alliance, Treaty of (1778), 606, 635 Almendariz, Ricardo, 716 Almon, John, 553 Alompra     See Alaungpaya Alta California, 520 Amangkurat III, 48 Amangkurat IV, 48 Amariton, François, 123 Amazon River, South America, 231-233, 918 Amban (Chinese imperial representative), 346 Amber effect (electricity), 198, 216 AME Church, 736 American-American Indian conflicts, 83-85, 424-426, 466-468, 555-558, 626-628, 794-796, 857-860 American-American Indian relations, 739 American Board of Customs (1767), 493 American-British conflicts, 531-533 American Colonies     map, 374, 464 American Company (theater group), 483 American-French conflicts, 895-898 American-French diplomacy, 588, 606 American-French relations, 887, 908 American independence, 585-591, 598, 615-618, 801 American Indian-American conflicts, 83-85, 424-426, 466-468, 555-558, 626-628, 794-796, 857-860 American Indian-American diplomacy, 609-611 American Indian-British conflicts, 455 American Indian-British diplomacy, 377-379 American Indian-French conflicts, 122-124, 609 American Indians     and alcohol, 914     and Catholicism, 521     and colonization, 914     delegations to Washington, D.C., 915     territory losses, 244-246     See also Indigenous revolts    Native Americans American Revolution (1775-1783), 585-591     Anglican Church in America, 770     Canada, 561     and Canadian independence, 799     end of, 629-631, 667-670, 680, 682-683     first battle, 581-584     first death, 532     French support, 606-609, 634, 887     influence on Irish independence, 906     Iroquois Confederacy, 609, 695     and Lord Dunmore’s War, 557     Loyalists, 676     Thomas Paine, 600     religious freedom, 725     Senecas, 914     slavery, 624     George Washington, 758     weaponry, 618-620     See also Lexington and Concord, Battle of Amherst, Jeffrey     See Amherst, Lord Amherst, Lord, 403, 425, 455, 463, 653 Amiens, Treaty of (1802), 646 Amity and Commerce, Treaty of (1778), 606, 635, 887 Amortization tables, 340 Ampère, André-Marie, 928 Analytic philosophy, 660 Analytical Institutions (Agnesi), 318-320 Anaphylaxis, 882 Anatomia animata (living anatomy), 395 Anatomische tabellen (Kulmus), 155 Anatomy     circulatory system, 393     human, 395 Andes region, South America, 919 André, Johann Anton, 898 Anecdotes of the Last Twelve Years of the Life of J    J    Rousseau (Roucher), 621 Anesthetics, 916-917 Ang Non, 522 Angiolini, Gasparo, 249-250 Anglican Church, 22, 930     Great Britain, 85-88     Ireland, 929     missionaries, 827 Anglo-Mar3th3 War     See First Mar3th3 War Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799), 495-498 Anhalt-Zerbst, Sophie Friederike Auguste von     See Catherine the Great Animal experimentation, 305, 395, 566, 775 Anna, 238, 249, 266 Anna Ivanovna     See Anna Annapolis Convention (1786), 741 Anne, Queen, 19, 22, 29, 45-46, 58, 85, 90, 117, 174, 181 Anson, George     See Anson, Lord Anson, Lord, 257, 359, 366 Antiauthoritarianism in literature, 543 Antifederalists, 745, 760, 773, 806, 887 Antiheroes, 672 Anti-Lockeanism, 254 Antiquarianism, 141 Antiquaries, Society of     See Society of Antiquaries Antiquities, Greek, 205-207 Antiquities, Roman, 205-207 Antiquities of Athens, The (Stuart and Revett), 206, 432-435 Anti-Seneca (La Mettrie), 160 Antislavery movement, 578, 598, 623-625, 837 Anton Reiser (Moritz), 543 Antrim, Battle of (1798), 907 Anza, Juan Bautista de, 520 Aoki Kon’yf, 153 Apology for the Life of Mrs    Shamela Andrews, An (Fielding), 273, 287 Apostolicum (Clement XIII), 423 Aqueducts, 418 Arabic-language printing, 27 Aranda, count de, 411, 680 Archaeology, 206, 432     England, 139     Italy, 325-328     Palenque ruins, 716-719     Pompeii, 326     See also Antiquities    Avebury    Picturesque movement    Pompeii    Ruins; Stonehenge Architectural illustrations, 433 Architectural preservation, 328 Architecture     ancient Greece, 433     Imperial Viennese style, 125     La Scala, 637     libraries, 25     Mayan, 716     military, 102     neoclassicism, 206, 327, 433, 698     Ottoman, 334-336     Pombaline, 387     Spain, 698 Arcola, Battle of (1796), 885 Arçon, Jean-Claude-Éléonore Le Michaud d’, 649 Arctic expeditions, 842-843, 845-846 Arctic Ocean     map, 844 Argyll, second duke of, 58, 128 Aristocracy, 439 Aristotle, 168, 228, 368 Arkwright, Sir Richard, 469, 490, 640, 711, 786, 796, 828, 863 Arlandes, marquis d’, 683, 708 Arminianism, 782 Army, Hungarian, 35 Army, Prussian, 274 Army, U.S., 585-591, 594, 619, 626, 758, 897 Army of the Orient (France), 904, 921 Arnauld, Antoine, 187 Arnold, Benedict, 585, 626, 629 Arouet, François-Marie     See Voltaire Arpicimbalo (keyboard instrument), 67 Arriaga, Antonio de, 650-651 Art     competitions, 242     Japan, 154     Mayan, 716     neoclassicism, 206, 327, 729-732     public consumption of, 242     public exhibitions, 242     realism, 154     Romanticism, 731     Russia, 889-892     wood turning, 6 Art criticism, 243 Art de convertir le fer forgé, L’     See Memoirs on Steel and Iron Art de tourner, L’ (Plumier), 6-7 Art history, 435 Art of the Fugue, The (Bach), 14 Art patronage, 137, 516, 889-892 Art salons, Paris, 241-243 Art schools, 515 Articles of Capitulation (1760), 559 Articles of Confederation (1781), 593, 663-666, 714, 741, 745, 759, 789 Asano Naganori, 16 Asbury, Francis, 509, 781 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), 366 Aselli, Gasparo, 392 Asia     map, xli Asiatic Society of Bengal, 727 Asiento de negros (slave trade license), 1, 21, 31, 150, 201, 257, 337 Astroarchaeology, 140 Astrology, 173 Astronomy     England, 45-47     modern, 173-176     and navigation, 174     reflecting telescope, 732 Astronomy wars, 45-47 Atahualpa (Inca emperor), 650 Athanasius Dabbas, 27 Atheism, 158 Atheistic materialism, 528 Atlas coelestis Britannica (Flamsteed), 173 Atmospheric circulation, 226-227 Attakullakulla, 424 Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (Fichte), 813 Attraction and repulsion, laws of, 133 Attucks, Crispus, 531 Aubrey, John, 138 Augustus II, 10 Augustus III, 221, 251 Aungzeya     See Alaungpaya Aus den Memoiren de Venetianers Jacob Casanova de Seingalt     See Memoirs of Jacques Casanova de Seingalt, The Australia     map, 751 Australian penal colony, 750, 752-753 Austria     map, 267, 539 Austrian East India Trading Company, 201 Austrian-French conflicts, 820, 823, 884-886 Austrian Netherlands, 278, 281, 337, 577, 820 Austrian-Ottoman conflicts, 77-79, 238-241 Austrian-Prussian conflicts, 278 Austrian-Russian relations, 238-241 Austrian Succession, War of the (1740-1748), 278-282, 336, 377, 576 Austrian throne, 277-282 Autobiography of Giambattista Vico, The (Vico), 180 Avebury, 138-141 Aw-gee-nah, 842 #z3d Khan, 176 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 15 Bach, Johann Christian, 15, 435 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 14 Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, 15 Back-to-Africa movements, 547, 694 Backus, Isaac, 724 Baden, Treaty of (1656), 96    See also Rastatt and Baden, Treaties of Bahrdt, Carl Friedrich, 812 Bailly, Jean-Sylvain, 767 Bakewell, Robert, 427 Balance of powers, 330 Bal4arab bin Sulz3n, 4 Bal4arab ibn Himyar ibn Sulz3n, 341 Balcarres, sixth earl of, 872 Baldwin, Abraham, 701 Balkans, 268 Ballad operas, 191-193 Ballet, 604-605     Russia, 249-251 Ballet d’action, 250 Ballinahinch, Battle of (1798), 907 Balloon flight, 683-686, 708-711 Baltace Mehmed Pala, 77 Baltic region, control of, 10-13 Bandi, 346 Bank of England, 150 Bank of the United States, 790 Banking     Adam Smith, 601     and trade, 146 Banknotes, 145 Banks, Sir Joseph, 503, 750, 927 Banque Générale (France), 145 Banque Royale (France), 146, 151 Banruku theater     See Jfruri theater Baptist Church     African American, 545-547     First Great Awakening, 262, 827     Second Great Awakening, 782     Virginia, 725 Baptist Missionary Society, 827 Barber of Seville, The (Beaumarchais), 691 Baré, Jeanne, 485 Barnwell, John, 83 Baroque, 434     architecture, 127, 334     music, 14 Barrow, Isaac, 42 Bartholin, Thomas, 392 Barton Aqueduct, 418 Bas-Poitou     See Vendée, Wars of the Basel, Treaty of (1795), 821, 877 Bassi, Laura, 318 Bastille (Paris), 767-769 Batavia, Indonesia, 48 Batteries, 927-929 Battle of _______     See specific name Battles of Coxinga, The (Chikamatsu), 41 Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb, 658 Bayes, Thomas, 444 Bayle, Pierre, 158, 419, 471 Beaulieu, Johann Peter, 884 Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron de, 690 Beaurepaire, Nicolas François, 823 Beccaria, Cesare, 408, 446, 498 Becher, Johann Joachim, 168 Beddoes, Thomas, 916 Bedford, fourth duke of, 449 Beecher, Lyman, 781 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 15, 814, 868 Beets, 316-318 Beggar’s Opera, The (Gay), 191-193 Belfast, Ireland, 815 Belgrade, Treaty of (1739), 240, 266-268, 506    map, 267 Bell curve, 214-216 Belle-Isle, Charles Fouquet de, 222, 277, 279 Bello, Andrés, 107 Belzunce, Henri François Xavier de, 147 Benedict XIV, 111, 319 Bénévent, prince de     See Talleyrand Benezet, Anthony, 578 Bengal, India, 397-400, 495, 572 Bennington, Battle of (1777), 589, 629 Bentham, Jeremy, 408 Bentley, Thomas, 414 Bergier, Nicolas-Sylvestre, 529 Bergman, Torbern Olof, 133 Bering, Vitus Jonassen, 194, 520 Berkeley, George, 184, 254, 372 Berlichingen, Götz von, 542 Berlin, Treaty of (1742), 281 Berlin Decrees (1806), 748 Bernoulli, Daniel, 246, 269, 293 Bernoulli, Jakob I, 131, 214, 444 Bernoulli, Johann I, 131, 247, 323 Bernoulli, Nikolaus, 214 Berry, duke of     See Louis XVI Berthier, Louis-Alexander, 884 Berthollet, Claude Louis, 133, 719, 846, 878 Bertrand, Jean Baptiste, 147 Berwick, duke of, 222 Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, 736 Bibiena, Ferdinando Galli da, 125 Bible translation, 826 Bickerstaff, Isaac     See Steele, Richard Bickley, May, 92 Bill of Rights, England, 22 Bill of Rights, Society for the Supporters of the     See Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights Bill of Rights, U.S., 806-809 Billaud-Varenne, Jean-Nicolas, 855 Binomial classification, 228-231 Biran, Maine de, 371 Birth control, 901 Black, Joseph, 380, 474, 565, 706 Black Death     See Plague Blagden, Sir Charles, 661 Blake, William, 140 Blanchard, Jean-Pierre-François, 708 Blane, First Baronet     See Blane, Sir Gilbert Blane, Sir Gilbert, 366 Bleaching of textiles, 307, 756 Blending theory of inheritance, 352 Blenheim, Battle of (1704), 20, 50-53 Blood system, 392-394 Blucke, Stephen, 676 Blue Jacket, 794, 857 Blue Nile River, Sudan, 513-515 Blunt, John, 150 Blunt, King Tom, 83 Boats, iron, 632 Bodawpaya, 360 Bodega y Quadra, Juan, 791 Boerhaave, Herman, 395 Bohol Island, Philippines, 295 Bolea, Pedro Pablo Abarca de     See Aranda, count de Bolingbroke, first Viscount, 29, 90, 184 Bolombo, 224 Bolshoi Theatre Company, Moscow, 251, 604-605 Bolzius, John Martin, 208 Bombay, India, 496, 572 Bon ton (proper tone), 622 Bonaparte, Josephine, 924 Bonaparte, Lucien, 924 Bonaparte, Napoleon     See Napoleon I Bonds, 789 Bonneval, Claude Alexandre de, 238-239 Bonneval de Blanchefort, Claude Alexandre de     See Bonneval, Claude Alexandre de Bonnie Prince Charlie     See Charles Edward Bonpland, Aimé, 918 Book censorship     France, 160, 355, 406, 529     Japan, 153-155     Switzerland, 472 Borromeo, San Carlo, 125 Boscawen, Edward, 403 Boschenry de Drucour, Augustin de, 403 Bose, Georg Mathias, 303 Boston Massacre (1770), 531-533, 615 Boston Tea Party (1773), 533, 550-553, 582, 615 Botany, 6, 642-645     and pharmacology, 154 Bottyán, János Vak, 35 Boudinot, Elias, 612 Bouexic, Luc Urbain de, 656 Boufflers, duc de, 74 Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de, 485 Bougainvillea vine, 487 Boulainviller, Henri de, 158 Boulton, Matthew, 474, 490 Bourbon, Don Carlos de, 251 Bourbon Dynasty, 106, 280, 784 Bourbon Spain, 19, 120 Bourgeoisie, 499, 597, 761, 764, 850 Bovet, Osip, 604 Boyd, Sir Robert, 647 Boyle, Robert, 246, 661 Boyle’s law (chemistry), 246 Boyne, Battle of (1690), 25 Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, 635 Braddock, Edward, 375, 383 Bradley, James, 116, 321, 358 Bradley, Richard, 233 Bragança, Maria Isabel de, 698 Brahe, Tycho, 55, 173 Brandenburg-Prussia, 849 Brandywine Creek, Battle of (1777), 589 Brant, Joseph, 609, 626, 695, 914 Brant, Molly, 627 Braschi, Giannangelo     See Pius VI Braschi, Giovanni Angelo     See Pius VI Breeding, livestock, 427-429 Breed’s Hill, Battle of     See Bunker Hill, Battle of Breslau, Treaty of (1741), 280 Breve, François Savary de, 27 Bridges, iron, 631-633 Bridgewater Canal, England, 416-419    map, 417 Briefe über Merkwürdigkeiten der Literatur (Gerstenberg), 543 Brindley, James, 416 British-American conflicts, 531-533 British-American Indian conflicts, 455 British-American Indian diplomacy, 377-379 British-American relations, 680 British Canada, 100-103, 374, 383-385, 403-406, 558-561, 798-800 British Catalogue of the Heavens (Flamsteed), 47, 173 British-Chinese diplomacy, 831-833 British Colonies     map, 104 British Constitution     See Constitution, British British East India Company, 311-313, 495-498, 551, 826, 832     and Mar3th3s, 571-573     and Battle of Plassey, 397-400 British Empire, 313     and American independence, 615     in North America, 455     power of, 21     in South Africa, 646 British-French conflicts, 100, 647-650, 748, 904, 907, 911-913 British India, 397-400, 495-498 British-Indian relations, 556 British-Irish conflicts, 183, 906-908 British Mariner’s Guide (Maskelyne), 359 British parliament     See Parliament, British British-Spanish conflicts, 257-259, 647-650 Broglie, comte de     See Broglie, Victor-Maurice de Broglie, Victor-Maurice de, 32 Brome, Viscount     See Cornwallis, First Marquess Bromley, William, 85 Brooke, Henry, 460 Broussard dit Beausoleil, Joseph, 383 Brown, Charles, 257 Brown, Moses, 623, 796 Brown, William, 674 Brown University, 262 Brownrigg, William, 893 Bruce, James, 513 Brueghel, Pieter, 700 Brueys d’Aigalliers, François-Paul, 911 Brunswick, duke of, 820, 823, 834 Bryan, Andrew, 545 Bubble Act (1720), 152 Bubonic plague     See Plague Buckongahelos, 794 Buddhism, 346, 728 Buell, Samuel, 260 Buffon, comte de, 158, 338, 487, 706 Bull, Frederick, 653 Bull, William (1683-1755), 209, 263 Bull, William (1710-1791), 424, 501 Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775), 585 Bürgerstand (bourgeoisie), 850 Bürgisser, Leodegar, 95 Burgoyne, John, 626, 629 Burke, Edmund, 653, 672, 728, 784, 801, 809, 812-813 Burke, Thomas, 663 Burmese Third Empire, 360-362 Burmese unification, 360-362 Burr, Aaron, 623-624 Busaidi Dynasty, 5 Büsching, Anton Friedrich, 368 Bushmen (southern Africa), 645 Bushnell, David, 618 Bushnell, Ezra, 618 Bussy-Castelnau, marquis de, 311 Bute, third earl of, 389, 449 Butler, John, 628 Butler, Richard, 696 Buxar, Battle of (1764), 399 Byng, George, 61 Byronic heroes, 672 Cabal and Love (Schiller), 543 Cabinet du Roi, 339     See also Kunstkammeren Cabot, George, 837 Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, 520 Cadet de Vaux, Antoine-Alexis, 621 Cadillac, sieur de, 123 Cahokia, 456 Cairo, Egypt, 905 Calcination, 169 Calculus, 270, 318-320, 686     and bell curve, 215     of variations, 131-133     See also Agnesi, Maria Gaetana    Alembert, Jean le Rond d’    Châtelet, marquise du    Euler, Leonhard    Lagrange, Joseph-Louis    Maclaurin, Colin Calcutta, India, 397 Caldwell, James, 531 Calibration of thermometers, 112, 284-287 California     American Indians, 520     Catholic missions, 519-522     exploration and settlement, 520     map, 520 Calonne, Charles-Alexandre de, 761 Calvinism, 109, 781     colonial America, 261 Calzabigi, Ranieri, 441 Cambodia     map, 523 Camisards, War of the (1702-1704), 32-35 Camp Charlotte Agreement, 557 Camp meetings (Methodist Church), 782 Campbell, John     See Argyll, second duke of Campbell and Cowall, earl of     See Argyll, second duke of Campo Formio, Treaty of (1797), 822, 886 Campo Santo, Battle of (1743), 281 Campomanes, Pedro Rodríguez de, 411 Canada     and American Indians, 914     Constitutional Act, 798-800     map, 101, 374, 559, 844 Canadian independence and American Revolution, 799 Canadian Northwest, control over, 791-793 Canals, 414, 416-419, 788, 864, 904 Candide (Voltaire), 388, 419-422, 472 Canning of foods, 489 Cannobiana, Teatro della, Milan, 638 Cantatas, 14 Canziani, Giuseppe, 249-250 Capacitors, 927 Cape Breton Island, Canada, 403 Cape Colony, South Africa, 645 Capet, Louis     See Louis XVI Capitalism, 601 Caracas, Venezuela, 918 Carbon and steel production, 163 Carbon dioxide, 380-382, 564     in photosynthesis, 642 Carey, William, 826-827 Carib Indians, 431 Caritat, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicholas de     See Condorcet, marquis de Caritat, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas     See Condorcet, marquis de Carleton, Sir Guy, 558, 626, 676, 798 Carlsbad Decrees (1819), 814 “Carmagnola”    (Paganini), 868 Carmer, Johann Heinrich Casimir von, 849 Carnatic Wars (1746-1754), 311-313 Carnot, Lazare, 820, 884 Caron, Pierre-Augustin     See Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron de Carr, Patrick, 531 Carriages, steam-powered, 525-527 Carrier, Jean-Baptiste, 841 Carroll, Charles, 561 Carroll, John, 561 Carter, Elizabeth, 349 Cartography, 116, 900 Cartwright, Edmund, 640, 711, 786, 828 Cartwright, John, 711 Cartwright, Peter, 781 Carvajal y Lancáster, José    de, 343 Carvalho e Mello, Sebastião José    de     See Pombal, marquês de Carvalho e Mendonça, Paulo de, 517 Casiquiare River, Venezuela, 232, 918 Cast iron, 678 Casta (mixed-race population), 651 Castlebar, Battle of (1798), 907 Categorical imperative, 660 Cathelineau, Jacques, 839 Catherine I, 189 Catherine II     See Catherine the Great Catherine the Great, 196, 240, 249, 498, 506, 538, 548, 562, 604, 889 Catholic Church, 633     and American Indians, 521     banned from Georgia colony, 209     Canada, 559     criticism of, 407     and earth sciences, 368     and Earth’s creation, 339     England, 22     and Paul-Henri-Dietrich d’    Holbach, 528     Hungary, 35     Ireland, 181, 929     Korea, 703-705     and Maya religion, 98     mission system, 519     Philippines, 295     suppression of Jesuits, 422-424     United States, 725     Voltaire, 186, 473 Catholic Defenders, 907 Catholic emancipation, 815, 930 Catholic-Protestant conflicts, 32-35, 61, 95, 653-655 Catholic Relief Bill (1778), 653 Catholic rights, 558-561, 653 Cavalier, Jean, 32 Cavalini, Taddeo, 7 Cave, Edward, 236, 349 Cavendish, Henry, 410, 564-565, 661, 720 Cayugas, 696 Céleron, Captain de, 377 Celestial mechanics, 269, 878 Cellular biology, 331, 352, 643 Celsius, Anders, 112, 284 Celsius scale, 284-287 Censorship     England, 90-92, 237, 451-454     France, 160, 355, 406, 529, 621     German states, 814     Japan, 153-155     Switzerland, 472     United States, 909 Centigrade scale, 286 Ceramics, 414-416 Cervetto, Giovanni, 868 Cesalpino, Andrea, 228 Cévennes     map, 33 Chabaneau, François, 893 Chambers, John, 235 Champollion, Jean François, 903, 921 Chance, 214     See also Probability theory Chanda Sahib, 311 Change, in nature, 529 Charette, François, 839 Charles, Archduke, 820 Charles, Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar, 708 Charles III (1685-1740), 19 Charles III (1716-1788), 222, 325, 411, 422, 573, 595, 698, 716 Charles IV     See Charles III (1716-1788) Charles VI, 77, 103, 120, 125, 221, 238, 251, 266, 277     See also Charles III (1685-1740) Charles VII, 277, 279 Charles XII, 10, 72 Charles de Beauharnois, 122 Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu     See Montesquieu Charles Edward (Bonnie Prince Charlie), 300 Charles Emmanuel III, 279 Charles-Louis de Secondat     See Montesquieu Charles William Ferdinand     See Brunswick, duke of Charleston, South Carolina, 30, 263, 425, 589 Charlestown Neck, Battle of     See Bunker Hill, Battle of Chase, Samuel, 561 Chataud, Jean-Baptiste, 147 Châtelet, marquise du, 158, 419 Chatham, baron of     See Argyll, second duke of Chatham, first earl of     See Pitt, William, the Elder Chatoyer, Joseph, 430 Chauncy, Charles, 260 Chauvelin, Germain Louis, 480 Chayla, François de Langlade de, 32 Checks and balances system, 802 Chemical nomenclature, 719-722 Chemical printing     See Lithography Chemical reactivity, 133-135 Chemicals and manufacturing, 306 Chemistry     carbon dioxide, 380-382     law of definite proportions, 846-849     and medicine, 916     oxygen, 564-567     pneumatic, 566     solvent extraction, 317     water, 661-663 Cherokee War (1759-1761), 424-426, 502 Cherokees, 84, 424, 556 Chesterfield, Lord, 206, 314, 349 Chiapas, Mexico, 98-100, 717 Chickasaws, 859 Ch’ien-lung     See Qianlong Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 40 Childhood     concept of, 672 Children     and heredity, 352     as laborers, 713     in literature, 183, 671 China     control of Tibet, 346-348     map, 347     trade with Japan, 153 Chinese-British diplomacy, 831-833 Chinese-Tibetan conflicts, 346-348 Ch’ing Kao-tsung     See Qianlong Chipewyans, 845 Chippewas, 455, 463 Chirikov, Aleksei Ilich, 194 Chisholm v    Georgia (1793), 774 Chladni, Ernst Florens Friedrich, 298 Choctaws, 859 Choiseul, Étienne François de, 389, 449 Cho©ng Yak-jong, 703 Cho©ngjo, 703 Chfnin culture, Japan, 40 Choral music, 14 Chouans, 841 Christian VII, 817 Christian ministry, 545 Christian missionary societies, 826-828 Christianity     and African slaves, 1     and American Indians, 521, 914-916     and American theater, 482     and classical music, 290     and the Enlightenment, 158     in Japan, 153     and Lisbon earthquake, 387, 419     in literature, 288     See also Catholic Church    Dissenters    Lutheranism    Presbyterianism    Protestantism; Settlement, Act of Christin, Jean Pierre, 112, 284 Christmas Rebellion (1831), 874 Christophe, Henri, 803 Christopher, Sir John, 754 Chronometers, 115, 175, 359 Church and state     France, 34     Jesuits, 422-424     separation of, 724     United States, 725 Church Missionary Society, 827 Church of England, 561, 724, 770     See also Anglican Church Churchill, John     See Marlborough, first duke of Churchill, Sarah, 50 Chushingura (anonymous), 18 Circuit Court Act (1769), 502 Circumnavigation of the globe, 485-487, 503-506 Cisapline Republic, 885 Citizen Genet     See Genet, Edmond-Charles-Édouard Citizenship and public interest, 801 Citrus fruits and scurvy, 366 Civil engineering, 387 Civil liberties, 439, 812-815 Civitas, Italy, 326 Clairaut, Alexis-Claude, 270, 293 Clarke, Samuel, 184 Class conflict, 691 Classical music, 14-16, 290-293, 435-438 Classicism     opera, 443     theater, 443     See also Neoclassicism Clement XI, 109 Clement XIV, 422, 517 Clerfayt, count von, 823 Clergy, nonjuring (France), 840 Clinton, George, 745, 760 Clinton, Sir Henry, 585, 629, 667 Clive, Robert, 311, 389, 397 Clocks, 115, 131 Coalbrookdale, England, 64, 631 Cobbett, William, 90, 553 Cocceji, Samuel von, 849 Coercive Acts (1774), 532, 552, 559, 568, 581, 615 Coke-smelting, 64-66 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 103, 145, 163 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 672 Collagen, 366 Collectivism, 439 Colleges and universities     development of, 701     nonsecular, 262, 781 Colman, George, the Elder, 458 Colonial confederation, 378 Colonization     British economics, 150     British of Burma, 360-362     British of Georgia, 208-211     British of India, 311-313     Dutch of East Indies, 48     Dutch of South Africa, 645     Europeans of Africa, 2     Europeans of North America, 244-246, 373-377, 914     French of Egypt, 903-906, 921     French of India, 311-313     French of Polynesia, 486     global conflicts, 29     Portuguese of East Africa, 4-5     Russians of Mongolia, 189     slave trade, 1     Spanish economics, 150     Spanish of Latin America, 650-653     Spanish of Philippines, 295 Color theory, 42 Colored Church, Savannah Georgia First     See Savannah Church Columbus, Christopher, 114 Combustion, 168, 565 Comets, 53-55 Comic novels, 289 Comic opera, 604 Committee of Public Safety (France), 757, 820 Common Sense (Paine), 588, 598-600, 615, 634, 801 Commune (Paris), 769 Communication and electricity, 199 Communion and public office, 85-88 Compagnie Française des Indes     See French East India Company Company of Scotland, 59 Company of the Occident     See Mississippi Company Complete Course of Lithography, A (Senefelder), 899 Compounds, chemical, 846-849 Compromise of 1850, 838 “Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Durability and Stability”    (Hutton), 706 Concert Spirituel, 436 Concord and Lexington, Battle of     See Lexington and Concord, Battle of Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de, 158, 338, 371 Condillac’s Treatise on the Sensations (Condillac), 340, 371 Condit, John, 613 Condorcanqui, José    Gabriel     See Tupac Amaru II Condorcet, marquis de, 355, 901 Confederation Congress, 714, 741 Confessions (Rousseau), 440, 670-673 Confessions de J.-J    Rousseau, Les     See Confessions Confucianism, 703-705 Congregation of the Propagation of the Faith, 826 Congregationalism, 261, 781 Conical motion, 322 Connecticut Compromise     See Great Compromise Connolly, John, 555 Conservatism     criticism of, 801-803     foundations of, 784-786     See also Democracy    Liberalism Conspiracy of the Távoras (1758), 422 Constantinople, Treaty of (1700), 77 Constitution, British, 23, 568 Constitution, French, 834 Constitution, U.S., 741-745, 758, 806, 837, 910 Constitutional Act, Canada (1791), 798-800 Constitutional Convention (1787), 740, 745, 758, 773 Contamination of food, 489 Contentnea Creek, Battle of (1712), 84 Continental army     See Army, U.S. Continental Association, 569 Continental Congress, First (1774), 561, 568-570, 617 Continental Congress, Second (1775), 585, 593-595, 610, 612, 616, 664 Continental navy     See Navy, U.S. Continental System, 748 Contrat social, Du     See Social Contract, The Convulsionnaires, 187-189 Cook, James, 359, 366, 503, 673, 750, 791 Cooper, John, 612 Cooper, Samuel, 635 Coote, Sir Eyre, 495 Cope, Sir John, 300 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 321 Copley Medal, 365 Coptic, 922 Corancez, Guillaume Olivier de, 621 Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave de, 226 Coriolis effect, 270 Cornplanter, 914 Cornstalk, 555 Cornwallis, Charles     See Cornwallis, First Marquess Cornwallis, First Marquess, 311, 495, 585, 667, 906, 929 Corporation Act, England (1661), 85 Corrine (de Staël), 328 Corruption in literature, 288 Cort, Henry, 678, 786 Cortés, Hernán, 98 Corvée (compulsory labor service), 96 Cosby, William, 233 Cosmography and Geography (Varenius), 368 Cossacks, 12, 72, 77, 195, 498, 540, 548-550 Costa, Giacomo, 868 Cottage industry, 499, 863 Cotton gin, 828-831 Cotton industry, 490, 640, 711-712, 787, 796, 863 Coulomb, Charles, 218 Counter-Enlightenment, 528 Counter-Reformation, 826 Cousin, Victor, 371 Couthon, Georges, 855 Covenant Chain, 377, 610 Covent Garden Theatre, London, 211-213, 291 Cowpox, 881 Cranage, George, 678 Cranage, Thomas, 678 Crane, William, 613 Creationism, 339, 528 Creoles, 225, 431, 650 Cresap, Michael, 555 Crillon, Louis des Balbes de Berton de, 647 Crimea and antiquities, 891 Crimean Tatars, 77, 239, 507 Cristofori, Bartolomeo, 66 Critica musica (Mattheson), 68 Critique of Judgment, The (Kant), 659 Critique of Practical Reason (Kant), 659, 813 Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), 658-661, 813 Croix, Carlos Francisco de, 520 Croix, Charles Joseph de     See Clerfayt, count von Crompton, Samuel, 469, 640, 828, 863 Crosthwait, Joseph, 173 Cruydeboeck     See Nievve Herball, A Cuffee (Native American), 92 Cugnot, Nicolas-Joseph, 525 Cuius regio eius religio, 826 Cullen, William, 380 Cultural preservation, 328 Cumberland, duke of, 300 Cumberland Revival     See Logan County Revival Cuming, Alexander, 424 Currency     devaluation in France, 145     paper, 601 Currency Act (1764), 477, 615 Currier &    Ives publishing, 900 Cushing, Caleb, 623 Custine, Adam-Phillipe de     See Custine, comte de Custine, comte de, 820 Customs Act (1767), 493 Cutler, Manasseh, 701, 714 Cyclopedia (Chambers), 355 Dagohoy, Francisco, 295 Dagohoy Rebellion (1744-1829), 295-297 Dalai Lama, 346 Dalibard, Thomas-François, 365 Dalton, John, 227, 846 Damad Ali Pala, 77 Damascus, Syria, 308 Dance, 604-605     Russia, 249-251 Dane, Nathan, 737 Danish Guinea, 818 Danish West India Company, 224, 817 Danton, Georges, 776 Darby, Abraham, 64, 631, 678 Darby, George, 647 Darby II, Abraham, 64, 631 Darby III, Abraham, 64, 631 Daremberg, Jean-Baptiste     See Alembert, Jean le Rond d’ Dartmouth, second earl of, 558 Dartmouth College, 262 Darwin, Charles, 230, 707 Darwin, Erasmus, 414 Dashwood, Francis, 205 Daubenton, Guillaume, 88 Dauch, Martin, 764 Daun, Leopold Joseph, 389 Davenant, Sir William, 211 Davenport, James, 260 David, Jacques-Louis, 729 Davies, Samuel, 260 Davis, Edward, 165 Davy, Sir Humphry, 916, 928 “De Causa Physica Fluxus et Refluxus Maris”    (Maclaurin), 269 De humore acido a cibis orto et magnesia alba     See On Acid Humor Arising from Foods, and on White Magnesia De l’esprit (Helvétius), 406-408, 528 De l’ésprit des loix     See Spirit of the Laws, The “De mensura sortis”    (Moivre), 214 De partibus corporis humani sensibilibus et irritabilibus     See Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals, A Deane, Silas, 633 Dearlove, Ralph, 863 Death in literature, 543 Death of Socrates, The (David), 729-732 Death penalty, 775 “Debates in the Senate of Lilliput”    (Johnson), 237 De Bow, J    D    B., 828 “Declaration and Resolutions of the Society of United Irishmen in Belfast” (Tone), 816 Declaration of Causes of Taking up Arms (colonial America), 594 Declaration of Independence, U.S., 588, 615-618     and slavery, 598 Declaration of Pillnitz (1791), 820, 823 Declaration of Rights (Virginia), 725 Declaration of the Rights of Citizen and Man (France), 784 Declaratory Act (1766), 478, 615 Deep time (geology), 707 Deerfield, Massachusetts, attack (1704), 20, 30 Definite proportions law, 846-849 Defoe, Daniel, 90, 141, 271 Deism, 158, 354, 473, 781 De Lancey, James, 233, 377 De l’Aulne, Baron     See Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques Delaware peoples     See Lenni Lenapes Delaware River, 588 Delessert, Benjamin, 316 Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, 112 Democracy     and the Enlightenment, 158     Claude-Adrien Helvétius, 407     Thomas Paine, 801-803     Voltaire, 473     See also Conservatism    Liberalism Democratic government, 439 Democratic Party, 778 Demographics, 368, 901-903 Denain, Battle of (1712), 21 Denmark, abolition of slave trade, 817-819 Denominational colleges, 702 Dentistry, 917 Dephlogisticated air, 565, 661, 720 Desaguliers, Jean Théophile, 197 Desaix de Veygoux, Louis-Charles-Antoine, 903 Descartes, René, 42, 133, 269, 293, 323, 371, 658 Description de l’Égypte, 923 Description of the Ruins of An Ancient City . . . (Cabrera), 718 Descriptive grammar, 866     See also Grammar    Prescriptive grammar Despotism, 329 Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 803 Determinism, 530 Detroit, Michigan, 123 Dialectical philosophy, 689 Dialectics, 659 Diccionario de autoridades (Royal Academy, Spain), 107 Diccionario de la lengua España (Royal Academy, Spain), 89 Diccionario histórico-crítico de España (Royal Academy of History, Spain), 89 Dick (Native American), 92 Dickinson, John, 493, 568, 594, 663, 742 Dickinson, Jonathan, 260 Dictionaries, 314-316, 472, 865 Dictionary of the English Language, A (Johnson), 314-316, 349, 865 Dictionnaire philosophique portatif     See Philosophical Dictionary for the Pocket, A Didelot, Charles, 250 Diderot, Denis, 158, 339, 354, 371, 406, 471, 528, 670 Differential equations, 686 Diffusion, 331 Dinwiddie, Robert, 378, 425 Dioptrice (Kepler), 42 Dioptrique (Descartes), 42 Directory (France), 821, 841, 884, 904, 907 Disaster relief     Japan, 722     West Indies, 657 Discours préliminaire     See Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot Discours sur le bonheur     See Anti-Seneca Discours sur les sciences et les arts     See Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, A Discourse on Inequality, A (Rousseau), 670 Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, A (Rousseau), 161, 670 Discourse upon Some Late Improvements of the Means for Preserving the Health of Mariners, A (Pringle), 366 Diseases     and Catholic missions, 521     and Lisbon earthquake, 386     plague, 147-150     scurvy, 366, 505     smallpox, 881-883     and transportation of slaves, 1     See also Medicine    Plague    Scurvy    Smallpox Dishley (Leicester) sheep, 428 Dissenters (Protestants), 85, 142, 653, 725, 815 Dissertation on the Passions (Hume), 255 Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals, A (Haller), 395 Dissertation physique à    l’occasion du negre blanc (Maupertuis), 353 Divine era, 179 Divine intervention and astronomy, 880 Dizé, Michel Jean Jacques, 756 Dr    Johnson     See Johnson, Samuel Doctrine of Chances, The (Moivre), 214, 444 Dodoens, Rembert, 154 Dodsley, Robert, 314 Dominicans, 423 Dominus ac Redemptor (Clement XIV), 423 Don Quixote de la Mancha (Cervantes), 108, 271, 289 Dorchester, first Baron     See Carleton, Sir Guy Dorchester, Lord     See Carleton, Sir Guy Douglass, David, 482 Dowse, John, 894 Drafts     French military, 820, 840     of laborers, 650 Dresden, Treaty of (1745), 281, 336 Druids, 138 Drum thresher, 753-755 Drury Lane Theatre, London, 211, 458 Duane, William, 908 Dudley, Joseph, 29 Duer, William, 789 Du Fay, Charles-François de Cisternay, 197, 216 Dulany, Daniel, 476 Dumas, Jean-Baptiste-André, 534 Dumouriez, Charles-François, 820, 823 Dunmore, fourth earl of, 555 Dunmore’s War     See Lord Dunmore’s War Dupleix, Joseph-François, 311 Dupleix, marquis de     See Dupleix, Joseph-François Durand, Laurent, 406 Durazzo, Giacomo, 441 Dürer, Albrecht, 700 Durr3nt Dynasty, 71 Dutch East India Company, 48, 645 Dutch East Indies, 48-50 Dutch Empire, 48-50 Dutch Reformed Church, 260 Dutch studies in Japan, 154 Dutch West India Company, 2, 165 Dutrochet, Henri, 331 Duvergier, Jean, 187 Dwight, Timothy, 781 Dyer, Eliphalet, 594 Dyes, 534-535, 756 Earthly Venus, The (Maupertuis), 353 Earthquakes, 386-388 Earth’s interior, 322 Earth’s nutation, 321-323 East Indies, Dutch, 48-50 Easter Island, 165-168     map, 165 “Eastern Question,”    563 Ebeling, Christophe, 369 Eckhart, Johann Gottfried, 436 École Royale du Génie     See Mézières Economics     and British-Irish union, 930     East Indies trade, 49     price control, 591 Économistes     See Physiocracy Edict of Nantes (1598), 32 Edict of Toleration (1692), 832 Edict of Toleration (1781), 577 Edmundson, William, 579 Edo Castle, 16 Education     England, 865     grammar, 865     libraries, 283     mathematics, 319     nonsecular, 781     Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s influence, 672     Russia, 172     Scotland, 283     sex, 810     U.S    colleges and universities, 701     women and girls, 810, 866     workers, 283 Edwards, Jonathan, 260, 782, 826 Egalitarianism, 600 Égalité, Philippe     See Orléans, duc d’ Egerton, Francis, 416 Egmont, first earl of     See Perceval, John Egremont, second earl of, 463 Egypt     antiquities, 923     Napoleon’s campaign, 903-906 Egyptian Institute of Arts and Sciences, Cairo, 905, 921 Egyptology, 921 1812, War of, 790, 829, 862 El Escorial library, 89 El Pardo, Treaty of (1761), 344 El Prado Museum, Madrid, 698-700 Elbée, Maurice Gigost d’, 839, 841 Elbeuf, prince d’, 325 Elder, John, 466 Election law (United States), 614 Elective government (United States), 802 Electrical charges, 216-218, 927 Electrical conductivity, 197-199, 217, 303, 364, 927 Electricity, 409-411, 927     and communication, 199     and lightning, 332, 362-365, 927     nature of, 332     and nervous system, 927     one-fluid theory of, 199, 217, 364     storage of, 303-306, 927-929     two-fluid theory of, 199, 217 Electrodes, 927 Electrolytes, 927 Electrometer, 332 Electrons, 199, 218 Electrophorus, 927 Electrophysiology, 396 Electrotherapy, 305 Elementa physiologiae corporis humani (Haller), 395 Elements     chemical, 662, 846-849     classic four, 565 Elements of Chemistry (Lavoisier), 720 Eleventh Amendment (U.S    Constitution), 774 Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern, 274 Elizabeth Petrovna, 297, 389 Elizabethan Poor Law (1601), 870 Elliott, George Augustus, 647 Ellis, Henry, 210 Ellsworth, Oliver, 742, 772 Embryology, 352-354     and heredity, 352 Embury, Philip, 509 Émile     See Emilius and Sophia Emilius and Sophia (Rousseau), 440, 670 Emmanuel-Maurice de Lorraine     See Elbeuf, prince d’ Emotion     and political persuasion, 599     and reason, 544, 688 Empiricism, 254-256, 371, 659 Encomienda system, 98, 296 Encyclopedia (Diderot), 162, 293, 339, 354-357, 406, 472, 528 Engineering     canals, 417     civil, 387 England     map, 62, 710     slave trade, 1     union with Scotland, 58-61 English Channel, 708-711     map, 710 English Grammar, The (Jonson, B.), 865 English Grammar, An (Murray), 866 Enlightened despotism, 276, 411, 500, 576, 818 Enlightenment     America, 616, 725     definition of, 44     England, 184, 784     Europe, 332, 688, 865     France, 158-163, 328, 354-357, 406, 472, 729, 784     Germany, 544     Italy, 489     Portugal, 387     Prussia, 276     Russia, 171, 498     Scotland, 271     Spain, 698     Voltaire, 184-187 Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Hume), 254 Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Hume), 254 Entwurff einer historischen Architektur     See Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture . . . , A Epicureans, 158 Epigenesis, 352 Épinay, Madame d’, 671 Episcopal Church, 735-736, 770-772 Epistemology, 254     a priori knowledge, 658     common sense, 255     and the Enlightenment, 160     and Romanticism, 688      and sense experience, 371-373 Epistolary literature, 272 Époques de la nature (Buffon), 706 Equator, 114, 226, 231 Erasmus, Desiderius, 158 Eroica symphony (Beethoven), 814 Erskine, first Baron, 653 Erskine, John     See Mar, sixth earl of Erskine, Thomas     See Erskine, first Baron Esad Pala, 308 Escorial, El, library, 89 Elfah3n, Siege of (1722), 70, 176 Esquilache Revolt, 412 Essai de cosmologie (Maupertuis), 161 Essai de statique chimique (Berthollet), 135 Essai sur l’origine des connaissances humaines     See Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, An (Locke), 254 Essay on Blindness, An (Diderot), 161, 372, 528 Essay on Diseases Incidental to Europeans in Hot Climates with the Method of Preventing Their Fatal Consequences, An (Lind), 367 Essay on Man, An (Pope), 420 Essay on the Food of Plants and the Renovation of Soils, An (Senebier), 644 Essay on the Most Effectual Means of Preserving the Health of Seamen in the Royal Navy, An (Lind), 367 Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge, An (Condillac), 160, 371 Essay on the Theory of Electricity and Magnetism (Aepinus), 409-411 “Essay Toward Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances, An”    (Price, for Bayes), 444 Estates-General (France), 761-764, 767     See also French Revolution    Third Estate Ether, 917 Ethics, 254, 406-408 Ethiopia, exploration of, 513-515 Étioles, Jeanne-Antoinette Le Normant d’     See Pompadour, Madame de Etiquette, Japanese, 17 Etruria Works (ceramics factory), 414 Eugene of Savoy, 19, 50, 74, 77, 120, 221 Euler, Leonhard, 132, 269, 318, 323, 358, 409, 686 Europa riconosciuta, L’ (Saleri), 637 Europe     map, xlv Evangelism, 782, 827     African Americans, 545 Evil in literature, 420 Evolution     and the Enlightenment, 161     geology, 707     taxonomy, 230     theory of, 339 Evreinov, Ivan, 194 Examen du matérialisme (Bergier), 529 Execution, 775 Exeter Ship Canal, England, 416 Exhortation and Caution to Friends Concerning Buying or Keeping of Negroes, An (Keith), 579 Expansionism     American, 714-716     central Europe, 266     Prussia, 275     See also Colonization    Imperialism Experience and knowledge, 407, 659 Experiential philosophy, 371 Experiments and Observations on Electricity (Franklin), 363 “Experiments upon Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and Some Other Alcaline Substances” (Black), 380 Experiments upon Vegetables (Ingenhousz), 644 Exploration     Alaska, 194-197     Amazon River, 232     Easter Island, 165     Ethiopia, 513-515     Pacific Ocean, 503-506     South and Central America, 918-920     South Pacific, 165 Explosives, 534-535, 619 Exposition du système du monde     See System of the World, The Fabergé, Peter Carl, 298 Factitious airs, 662 Factories, 414, 864     See also Industrial Revolution    Labor    Machines    Mechanization of labor Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, 112, 247, 284 Fahrenheit thermometer, 112-114, 285 Falkland Islands, 485, 597 Fallen Timbers, Battle of (1794), 714, 794, 857-860 Famine     Italy, 446-448     Japan, 722-724 Fanning, Edmund, 501 Faraday, Michael, 928 Fardier à    vapeur (steam-powered vehicle), 526 Farming, 753-755, 902 Farnese, Isabella, 200, 251 Farquharson, Henry, 171 Fatw 4Alt Kh3n, 176 Fatw 4Alt Sh3h, 176 Fatma Hatun mosque, Istanbul, 334 Fatwa (legal opinion), 70 Federal courts, U.S., 772-774 Federal Street Theater, Boston, 484 Federalist, The (Hamilton, Madison, and Jay), 745-747, 778 Federalist Papers, The, 745-747 Federalist Party, 745, 759, 773, 778, 807, 862, 887, 895, 897, 909     and voting rights, 613 Fedorovich, Grand Duke Peter     See Peter III Feminism     See Women Fenton, Lavinia, 191 Fenton, Samuel, 863 Ferdinand II de’    Medici, 112 Ferdinand IV, 446 Ferdinand VI, 343 Fermat, Pierre de, 324 Fermentation, 168 Ferrel cells, 227 Fertilizers, 307 Feudalism     Austria and Bohemia, 576     France, 769     Hungary, 36     Italy, 446 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 658, 812 Fielding, Henry, 271, 287 Fiery Columns, 841 Fifteen Rebellion     See Jacobite Rebellion (1715-1716) Fifteenth Amendment (U.S    Constitution), 617 Figueroa, Manuel Ventura, 573 Financial collapse     Britain, 152     France, 145 Finch, Daniel     See Nottingham, second earl of Finland, 748 Finney, Charles Grandison, 781 Fire air (oxygen), 565 First Amendment (U.S    Constitution), 233-236, 725, 910 First Coalition (France), 820, 840 First Mar3th3 War (1774-1783), 571-573 Fischer von Erlach, Johann Bernhard, 125 Fischer von Erlach, Josef Emanuel, 125 Fish River, South Africa, 645 Fitzgerald, Lord Edward, 906-907 Fixed air (carbon dioxide), 380, 564, 643 Flamsteed, John, 45, 54, 173, 197, 321 Flamsteed, Margaret, 173 Flax mills, 863 Flax spinners, 863-865 Flaxman, John, 414 Flesselles, Jacques de, 767 Fletcher of Saltoun, Andrew, 58 Fleury, André-Hercule de, 187, 200, 221, 239, 252, 266, 277, 480 Flight, balloon, 708-711 Floating World District, Japan, 40 Floridablanca, count de, 411, 573, 633 Flour War (1775), 591-593 Flying shuttles, 219-221, 786 Foe, Daniel     See Defoe, Daniel Folle Journée, La     See Marriage of Figaro, The Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1743), 281 Fontenelle, Bernard Le Bovier de, 158 Food     bread consumption, 591     contamination, 489     preservation, 489     production, 427, 753     shortages, 901     See also Canning of foods    Famine    Scurvy Forbidden Books, Index of     See Index of Forbidden Books Forbin, Claude de, 61 Foreign policy, U.S., 887 Forgery, 117 Forster, Thomas, 128 Fort Duquesne, Pennsylvania, 374 Fort Harmar, Treaty of (1789), 697 Fort Industry, Treaty of (1805), 795 Fort Necessity, Pennsylvania, 374 Fort Stanwix, Treaty of (1768), 465, 556-557 Fort Stanwix Treaty (1784), 695-698 Fort Ticonderoga, New York, 588, 627, 629 Forty-Five Rebellion     See Jacobite Rebellion (1745-1746) Fouché, Joseph, 855, 924 Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant), 660, 813 Fourcroy, Antoine François de, 719 Fourier, Joseph, 686 Fourteenth Amendment (U.S    Constitution), 808 Fox, Charles James, 654, 784 Fox, George, 579 Fox Indians, 122-124 Fox Wars (1714-1741), 122-124 France     in American Revolution, 606     map, 33, 710     peasant revolts, 839-842     slave trade, 1 Francis I, 251, 277, 480 Francis Stephen     See Francis I Franciscan missionaries, 521 Francke, August, 826 Franco-American Treaties (1778), 606, 633-636, 669, 680, 862, 887, 895 François-Eugène     See Eugene of Savoy Franklin, Benjamin     abolition movement, 579     Albany Congress, 377     American Revolutionary War, 585     Canadian diplomacy, 561     Continental Congress, 593     Declaration of Independence, 615     electricity, 216, 303, 409, 927     Franco-American Treaties, 633     French diplomacy, 606     Journal de Paris, 622     kite experiment, 362     lightning rods, 331     Masons, 693     Thomas Paine, 598, 801     Paxton Boys’    Massacres, 466     Spectator, 82     Stamp Act crisis, 476     submarines, 619     Treaty of Paris, 680     U.S    Constitution, 741 Franklin, William, 362 Frederick I, 274 Frederick II     See Frederick the Great Frederick IV, 10 Frederick Louis, 155 Frederick the Great, 274, 277, 279, 336, 389, 400, 419, 440, 471, 538, 562, 849, 890 Frederick William I, 274, 849 Frederick William II, 538, 849 Frederiksborg, Treaty of (1720), 12 Free African Society, 734-737 Free markets, 601 Free Negro Corps (Caribbean colonies), 225 Free Produce Society, 736 Free Society, Freedom of the Press in a (primary source), 234 Free Society of Artists, 516 Free trade, 602 Freedom, individual, 812-815 Freedom of religion     See Religious freedom Freedom of speech, 812-815     United States, 233, 910 Freedom of the press     England, 90-92, 236, 452, 554     France, 406, 421     Germany, 812-815     United States, 910     See also Journalism    Libel    Newspapers Freeman’s Journal (newspaper), 460-463 Frelinghuysen, Theodore J., 260 French Academy, 880 French-American conflicts, 895-898 French-American diplomacy, 588, 606 French-American Half-War (1796-1800), 895, 909 French-American Indian conflicts, 122-124, 609 French-American relations, 680, 908 French and Indian War (1754-1763), 102, 373-377, 404, 424, 449-451, 455, 463, 466, 476, 609, 696, 914     map, 374     See also Seven Years’    War French-Austrian conflicts, 820, 823, 884-886 French-British conflicts, 100, 647-650, 748, 904, 907, 911-913 French-British relations, 29, 558, 861 French Canada, 100-103, 374, 383-385, 403-406, 559, 798-800 French Constitution     See Constitution, French French East India Company, 146, 151, 311 French invasion of Ireland (1796), 930 French-Irish Alliance (1798), 907 French-Italian conflicts, 884-886 French Lorraine, 223, 251-253, 480-482 French-Ottoman conflicts, 905 French-Prussian conflicts, 820, 823-825 French Revolution (1789-1796), 608     Bastille, 767-769     first battle, 823-825     Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, 691     beginnings of, 764-766     Edmund Burke, 784-786     early wars, 820-823     end of, 924-926     Enlightenment ideas, 162     impact on French colonies, 804     French imperialism, 884     influence on German philosophy, 813     guillotine, 776     influence on Irish independence, 906     Jay’s Treaty, 861     Louis XVI’s execution, 834-837     Thomas Paine, 801     peasant revolts, 839     Pinckney’s Treaty, 875     Robespierre, 855-857     Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 440     Voltaire, 421, 473     George Washington, 888     Mary Wollstonecraft, 811 French-Russian relations, 748 French-Swedish relations, 748 French-U.S    relations, 861, 887 French West Indies, 803, 861 Friends, Society of     See Quakers Frontier     American, 260, 455, 463, 501, 555-558, 781, 875-877     Brazilian, 343     Chinese, 190, 346     Russian, 37-39, 189     South African, 645-647 Frontier Wars, South Africa (1779-1803), 645-647 Fruit and scurvy, 366 Fu Kangan, 346 Fu Qing, 346 Fugitive Slave Act (1793), 837-839 Fugitive Slave Act (1850), 838 Fugues, 14 Fuller, Andrew, 826-827 Fulton, Robert, 712, 863 Function in mathematics, 323-325, 686 Fundamenta chymiae dogmaticae et experimentalis (Stahl), 168 Funding Act (1790), 789 Fur trade     See Trade Fusano, 249 Fyodorov, Ivan, 194 Fyodorovich, Pyotr     See Peter III Gage, Thomas, 463, 493, 531, 556, 581, 585, 594 Gainsborough, Thomas, 515 Galilee, 308-310 Galileo, 112, 269, 284 Gallatin, Albert, 778, 908 Galloway, Joseph, 568 Galvani, Alyosio Domenico     See Galvani, Luigi Galvani, Luigi, 395, 927 Gálvez, José    de, 519 Gama, Vasco da, 4 Gametes, 352 Gamma Draconis (star), 321 Ganganelli, Giovanni     See Clement XIV Gansevoort, Peter, 627 Garbett, Samuel, 306 Gardelin, Philip, 224 Garrettson, Freeborn, 734 Garrick, David, 211, 458     tour of Europe, 458-460 Garrick, Eva Maria, 458 Gases, 246-249, 564     theories of, 661-663 Gates, Horatio, 626, 629 Gay, John, 191 Gay-Lussac, Joseph-Louis, 662 Gedicht eines Skalden (Gerstenberg), 543 General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars (Herschel and Herschel), 733 General System of Nature, A (Linnaeus), 229 General will, 439 Genet, Edmond-Charles-Édouard, 887 Genetics, 352-354 Genocide, 196 Genovesi, Antonio, 446 Gentleman’s Magazine, 236-238, 554 Geoffroy, Étienne-François, 133 Geoffroy the Elder     See Geoffroy, Étienne-François Geographia generalis     See Cosmography and Geography Geography     and historical understanding, 689     and measurement, 116     and philosophy, 369     as science, 368-370 Geology, 339, 368, 528     uniformitarianism, 706-708 Geometry     See Carnot, Lazare    Lagrange, Joseph-Louis    Maclaurin, Colin George, David, 545 George, Prince (Denmark), 46, 174 George I, 22, 128, 155, 181 George II, 155, 277, 292, 300, 515 George III, 449, 451, 503, 515, 615, 653, 732, 750, 929 George Augustus     See George II George Louis     See George I Georgia     map, 208     Second Continental Congress, 593     settlement, 208-211     slavery, 210 German Idealism, 660 Gerry, Elbridge, 742, 806, 895 Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von, 542 Ghost Dance, 914 Gia Long     See Nguyen Phuc Anh Gibraltar, Siege of (1704), 20, 30, 200 Gibraltar, Siege of (1779-1783), 201, 647-650 Gibson, Alexander, 859 Giddings, Doras, 736 Gilbert, John, 416 Gilbert, Thomas, 870 Gilbert, William, 198, 216 Gilbert Act (1782), 870 Giri (society), 41 Girondins, 820, 835-836 Giustini, Lodovico, 66 Gladwin, Henry, 455 Glorious Revolution (1688-1689), 22, 61, 85 Gluck, Christoph, 441 Gmelin, Johann, 297 Gnecco, Francesco, 868 “God”    (Voltaire), 529 Godolphin, first earl of, 85 Godolphin, Sidney     See Godolphin, first earl of Godoy, Manuel de, 875 Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft     See Wollstonecraft, Mary Godwin, William, 809, 901 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 356, 542, 672, 825 Golden age, Ottoman Empire     See Tulip Age Gómez, Sebastían, 98 Gordon, Lord George, 653 Gordon Riots (1780), 653-655 Görtz, Georg Heinrich von, 10 Gothic art and architecture, 207 Götz von Berlichingen with the Iron Hand (Goethe), 542 Government     accountability, 622     Enlightenment ideas, 158     Montesquieu, 329 Goya, Francisco de, 700, 898 Graaff-Reinet, South Africa, 646 Graham, Catherine Macaulay     See Macaulay, Catherine Graham, George, 114 Grain, 412, 591-593, 753-755, 788 Gramática (Royal Academy, Spain), 108 Gramática de la lengua castellana destinada al uso de los americanos (Bello), 108 Grammar, English, 865-867 Grammatical Institute of the English Language, A (Webster), 867 Grand Alliance, 19, 30, 50, 103 Grand council, 378, 569 Grand St. Antoine, 148 Grand Tours of Europe, 205, 326, 433, 436 Granny Nanny     See Nanny Grant, James, 424 Grasse, count de, 585, 668 Grasse, Françoise-Joseph-Paul de    See Grasse, count de Grasset, Gabriel, 471 Grattan, Henry, 929 Graves, Thomas, 668 Gravicembalo (keyboard instrument), 67 Gravity, 45, 53, 269-271, 322, 878 Gray, Samuel, 531 Gray, Stephen, 197, 216, 303 Great Awakening, First, 260-263, 545, 782, 826 Great Awakening, Second, 702, 781-783 Great Britain    formation of, 58-61    map, 62 Great Compromise (1785), 743 Great Fear (France), 769 Great Lakes region, North America, 122 Great Law of Treaty (Iroquois), 915 Great Northern Expedition (1733-1742), 194 Great Northern War (1701-1721), 10-13, 72, 77, 222 Great Revival (1799-1800), 781 Great Siege     See Gibraltar, Siege of (1779-1783) Greathouse, Daniel, 556 Greco-Roman controversy, 434 Greek, study of, 865 Greek Revival, 433 Green, Sir William, 647 Green Mountain Boys, 585 Greene, Catherine, 828 Greene, Nathanael, 585, 594, 667 Greenville, Treaty of (1795), 794, 859, 877 Greenwich, duke of     See Argyll, second duke of Greenwich, earl of     See Argyll, second duke of Greenwich, England, 115 Grenville, George, 476 Grenville, William Wyndham, 860 Grimaldi, Jerónimo, 411 Grimm, Friedrich Melchior von, 354, 435 Grollier de Servière, Nicolas, 6 Grub Street, 315 Grumbkow, Friedrich Wilhelm, 274 Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten     See Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals Guadagni, Gaetano, 441 Guastalla, Battle of (1734), 222 Guericke, Otto von, 303, 927 Guichen, count de     See Bouexic, Luc Urbain de Guilford, Baron     See North, Lord Guilford, second earl of     See North, Lord Guillotin, Joseph-Ignace, 775 Guillotines, 775-777 Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, 403 Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 181-184, 289 Gulnabad, Battle of (1722), 70 Gurgan Khan, 69 Gurkhas, 348 Gusmão, Alexandre de, 343 Gustavus IV Adolphus, 748 Guyton de Morveau, Louis Bernard, 719 Gvozdev, Mikhail Spiridonovich, 194 Gyurme Namgyal, 346 Habsburg Empire, 35-37, 88, 104, 266, 277-282, 480, 576-578 Habsburg Spain, 19, 120 Hadley, George, 226 Hadley cells, 227 Hague, Treaty of the (1720), 106 Haider Ali     See Hyder Ali Haider Ali Khan     See Hyder Ali Haider Naik     See Hyder Ali Haiti, 694, 873 Haitian independence, 803-806 Hales, Stephen, 565, 643 Hall, Sir James, 706 Hall, Louis, 914 Hall, Prince, 693 Hallam, Lewis, Sr., 482 Haller, Albrecht von, 395 Halley, Edmond, 45, 53, 114, 173, 226, 321 Halley’s comet, 53-55, 174, 321 Hamann, Johann Georg, 542 Hamilton, Alexander, 580, 613, 624, 741, 745, 778, 789, 807, 852, 860, 887, 895 Hamilton, Andrew, 233, 244 Hamilton, William, 446 Hancock, John, 550, 593 Hancock, King Tom, 83 Handel, George Frideric, 290 Handfield, John, 383 Handsome Lake, 914 Hanoverian succession, 22-24, 59, 106, 128-131 Hansard, Luke, 553 Hansard, Thomas Curzon, 553 Hard Labor, Treaty of (1768), 465 Hardouin-Mansart, Jean, 242 Hargraves, James     See Hargreaves, James Hargreaves, James, 469, 490, 640, 786, 828, 863 Harley, Robert     See Oxford, first earl of Harmar, Josiah, 794, 858 Harrison, John, 114, 175, 358 Harrison, Thomas, 579 Harrison, William, 114 Harrison, William Henry, 795 Harrison Land Act (1800), 715 Harvey, Beauchamp Bagenal, 906 Harvey, William, 394 Hastings, Warren, 495, 571 Hauksbee, Francis, 197, 216, 927 Hawaii, 505     unification, 673-675 Hawke, Edward, 503 Hawkins, John, 1 Hayman, Francis, 515 Hearne, Samuel, 842 Heath, William, 594 Hebenstreit, Pantaleon, 66 Heck, Barbara, 509 Hedonism     and Enlightenment, 160     Ottoman Empire, 137 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 544, 658, 688, 812, 814 Hegelian philosophy, 690 Heiandf     See Chikamatsu Monzaemon Heizo, Hasegawa, 722 Heliocentrism, 321 Helmont, Jan van, 642 Helvétius, Claude-Adrien, 406, 528 Hendel, George Frideric     See Handel, George Frideric Hendrick, 377 Henry, Patrick, 476, 568, 724, 778, 806 Heraeus, Carl Gustav, 125 Herculaneum, 432 Herder, Johann Gottfried, 542, 576, 688 Heredity, 352-354 Herkimer, Nicholas, 626 Hermitage Museum (St. Petersburg, Russia), 889-892 Heroic era, 179 Herschel, Caroline Lucretia, 732 Herschel, Friedrich Wilhelm     See Herschel, William Herschel, William, 732 Heshen, 831 Hewson, William, 392 Heyes, Thomas     See Highs, Thomas Hieratic writing, 922 Hieroglyphics     Egyptian, 905, 921-923     Mayan, 716 Higgins, Francis, 460 Higher education, secular, 701-703 Highs, Thomas, 490, 786 Hildebrandt, Johann Lucas von, 125 Hill, John, 29 Hill, Wills     See Hillsborough, first earl of Hillsborough, first earl of, 463, 494, 531, 551 Hilverding, Franz, 249-250 Himalayas, 348 Hindus, 727 Hipparchus, 322 Hispaniola, 803 Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière     See Natural History, General and Particular Historia coelestis Britannica (Flamsteed), 46, 54, 173 Historical and Critical Dictionary, An (Bayle), 159, 471 Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution, A (Wollstonecraft), 811 Historiography, 178 History     of nations, 178     philosophy of, 688-690     and progress, 689     and tradition, 785, 801 History and Present State of Electricity (Priestley), 365 Hobbes, Thomas, 438 Hoche, Lazare, 907 Hochstadt, Battle of (1704), 35 Hofbibliothek, Vienna, 127 Hogarth, William, 515 Holbach, Paul-Henri-Dietrich d’, 354, 528 Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiry d’     See Holbach, Paul-Henri-Dietrich d’ Hölderlin, Friedrich, 812 Holland     and Dutch East India Company, 49     and Spanish succession, 74     See also Netherlands Hollandinus, Joseph Friedrich     See Sachsen-Hildburghausen, Prince von Holliday Street Theater, Baltimore, 484 Holy League, 77 Home Rule (Ireland), 930 Homme machine, L’     See Man a Machine Homunculus (little human), 352, 395 Hood, Samuel, 668 Hooke, Robert, 42, 53, 56, 321 Hoorn, Joan van, 48 Hoppos (merchants), 832 Horibe YasubT, 16 Horrock, William, 712 Horrocks, Jeremiah, 173 Hotaki Dynasty, 70 Howe, Richard, 647 Howe, William, 585, 626, 629 Hsinbyushin, 360 Hudson’s Bay Company, 793 Huguenots, 32 Human era of historical development, 179 Human reproduction, 352 Human rights, 579, 612, 850     See also Abolition movement    Civil liberties    Freedom    Liberty    Religious freedom    Slavery    Voting rights    Women Humbert, Jean-Joseph, 906 Humboldt, Alexander von, 368-369, 918 Humboldt Current, 919 Hume, David, 254, 658 Hungarian independence, 35-37 Hungarian peasant revolt     See Hungarian independence Hunter, Robert, 92, 202 Hunter, William, 392 Hurons, 123, 455, 556 Hurricanes, 656-658 Wusayn I, 69 Husband, Herman, 501 Hutcheson, Francis, 254, 601 Hutchinson, Thomas, 377, 550 Hutton, James, 706 Huygens, Christiaan, 42, 131, 214 Hyder Ali, 312, 495 Hydrodynamics (Bernoulli), 247 Hydrogen, 564, 661     and ballooning, 709 Hylton v    United States (1796), 774 Hypocrisy     in literature, 288     religious, 473 Iberian Peninsula, 200 Ibn Bazznzah, 4 Ibr3htm al-:abb3gh, 308 Ibrahim Müteferrika, 27 Idealism, 372, 660 Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit     See Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man Idéologues (intellectual movement), 372 Illinois, 455 Illinois Confederacy, 123, 455 Illustration, architectural, 433 Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth (Playfair), 707 Imhoff, Gustaaf Willem van, 48 Imlay, Gilbert, 811 Immigration politics, 909 Immunity from diseases, 881 Imperial Viennese style of architecture, 125 Imperial War Council, 78, 239 Imperialism     British, 183     French, 485     Prussian, 275     Spanish, 519 Imprimerie Orientale et Française, 28 Incas, 650-653, 728 Index of Forbidden Books, 421 India     map, 572     missionary activity, 826     origin of Asian civilizations, 727 Indiana Territory, 739 Indigenismo (indigenous movement), 718 Indigenous revolts     Kaffir Wars, South Africa, 645-647     Mexico, 98-100     North America, 455-457     Peru, 650-653     Philippines, 295-297     South Africa, 645-647 Individualism, 544 Indo-European languages, 727-729 Indonesia, 48 Industrial Revolution     America, 796     canals, 418     China, 831     England, 219, 306, 414-416, 632, 902     France, 163     iron, 678-680     rolling mill, 786     Russia, 499     steam engine, 57, 475     textiles, 640-642, 711-714, 786-788, 796-798, 863-865     See also Factories    Labor    Machines    Mechanization of labor Industrial sabotage, 713, 787 Infections and lymphatic system, 393 Infinite series (mathematics), 686 Inflammable air (hydrogen), 564 Ingenhousz, Jan, 642 Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae . . . (Jenner), 882 Inquiry into the Human Mind (Reid), 254 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, An     See Wealth of Nations, The Inquisition in Portugal, 517-519 Institutions de physique (Châtelet), 160 Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della gioventù    italiana     See Analytical Institutions Instruction (Catherine the Great), 498-500 Intaglio printing, 898 International Practical Temperature Scale, 285 Intertribal warfare, colonial America, 122-124 Intertropical Convergence Zone, 227 Intolerable Acts     See Coercive Acts Intra-European conflicts, 19-22 Introductio in analysin infinitorum     See Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite (Euler), 324 Inverary, Mull, Morvern, and Tirie, lord of     See Argyll, second duke of Iowa, University of, and admittance of women, 702 Iran     See Persia Iredell, James, 501 Iridium, 894 Irish-British conflicts, 183, 906-908 Irish independence, 815-817, 930 Irish Rebellion (1798), 815-817, 906-908 Iron boats, 632 Iron bridges, 631-633 Iron manufacturing, 64-66, 631, 678-680, 786 Iroquois Confederacy, 122, 245, 375, 377, 465-466, 556, 628, 695, 914     and American Revolution, 609-611     dissolution of, 610, 697 Irrawaddy River Valley, Myanmar, 360 Irwell River, England, 418 Iselin, Isaak, 688 Isolationism, 888 Italian campaigns of Napoleon, 821, 884-886 Italian-French conflicts, 884-886 Italian independence, 886 Italskii, Prince     See Suvorov, Aleksandr Vasilyevich Itinerarium curiosum (Stukeley), 139 Ivy House Works (ceramics factory), 414 Jaarsveld, Adriaan van, 645 Jacobins, 836, 841, 855 Jacobite Rebellion (1715-1716), 87, 128-131 Jacobite Rebellion (1745-1746), 300-303 Ja4far Kh3n, 176 Ja4fari faith, 70 Jakarta, Indonesia, 48 James II, 22, 58 James Edward, 59, 61, 87, 103, 128, 155, 300 James Francis Edward Stuart, the “Old Pretender.”    See James Edward Jansen, Cornelius Otto, 187 Jansenism, 109 Jansenist-Jesuit conflict, 187 Jardin du Roi, France, 338 Jarratt, Devereux, 260 Jassy, Treaty of (1792), 508 Jaucourt, Chevalier de, 355 Javanese Wars of Succession (1705-1757), 48-50 Jay, John, 568, 580, 593, 606, 624, 680, 745, 772, 860, 875, 887 Jay’s Treaty (1794), 778, 852, 860-863, 876, 888, 895 Jefferson, Thomas     Alien and Sedition Acts, 908     antifederalism, 887     Articles of Confederation, 663     colonial politics, 569     on Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, 598     Continental Congress, 593     Declaration of Independence, 615     economics, 789     higher education, 701     Jay’s Treaty, 860     James Logan, 557     National Vaccine Institute, 883     on Buffon’s Natural History, 338     Northwest Ordinance, 737     Ordinance of 1785, 714     religious freedom, 724     Senecas, 915     U.S    political parties, 778     Whiskey Rebellion, 852 Jeffries, John, 708 Jellicoe, Adam, 678 Jemappes, Battle of (1792), 820 Jemmy, 263 Jenkins, Robert, 257 Jenkins’s Ear, War of (1739-1741), 201, 257-259, 336 Jennens, Charles, 290 Jenner, Edward, 881 Jennings, Sarah     See Churchill, Sarah Jenyns, Sarah     See Churchill, Sarah Jesty, Benjamin, 881 Jesuit-Jansenist conflict, 187 Jesuits     China, 703, 832     French plague, 148     Inquisition, 518     Philippines, 295     South America, 232, 343     suppression of, 422-424 Jesus, Society of     See Jesuits Jews     Habsburg Empire, 576     Inquisition, 517     United States, 725 Jitsugaku (useful learning), 153 John V, 343 John Law System, 145-147, 151 Johnson, Dr     See Johnson, Samuel Johnson, John, 609 Johnson, Percival Norton, 893 Johnson, Samuel, 236, 314, 349, 728 Johnson, William, 455, 463, 555, 609 Johnston, Samuel, 501, 837 Johnston Act (1770), 501 Jones, Absalom, 734 Jones, Inigo, 138 Jones, Sir William, 727 Jfruri theater, 40 Joseph I (1678-1711), 35, 103 Joseph I (1714-1777), 343, 386 Joseph II, 506, 576 Joseph Andrews (Fielding), 273, 287-289 Jourdan, Jean-Baptiste, 820 Journal du voyage fait par ordre du roi, à    l’équateur (La Condamine), 232 Journalism     England, 90     France, 621     See also Freedom of the press    Libel    Newspapers Juan Fernandez Islands, 165 Judiciary Act (1789), 772-774 Julie     See New Héloïse, The Kabuki theater, 40 Kaeokulani (Hawaiian ruler), 674 Kaffir Wars     See Frontier Wars, South Africa Kahekili (Hawaiian ruler), 673 Kaiserstil, 127 Kaitai Shinsho (Kulmus), 155 Kalanikupule (Hawaiian ruler), 674 Kalaniopu’u (Hawaiian ruler), 673 Kalfa, Simeon, 334 Kamchatka region, Russia, 194 Kamehameha I (Hawaiian ruler), 673 Kamehamehanui (Hawaiian ruler), 673 K’ang-hsi     See Kangxi Kangxi, 189, 831 Kansekoe, 123 Kant, Immanuel, 227, 254, 368-369, 658, 812 Kant’s First Critique, 658-661 Kapalipilo, Battle of (1758), 673 Kapaniwai and Kauwau-pali, Battle of (1790), 674 Kappel Treaty (1531), 95 Kartm Kh3n Zand, 176 Karl XII     See Charles XII Karlowitz, Treaty of (1699), 77, 562 Karlskirche, Vienna, 125-128 Károlyi, Sándor, 35 K3tipz3de Mehmed Refe Efendi, 334 Katsuragawa Hochiku, 153 Katte, Hans Hermann von, 274 Kaumauli’i (Hawaiian ruler), 673 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton von, 278, 338, 389, 538, 576 Kaunitz-Reitberg, prince of     See Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton von Kay, John, 219, 469, 490, 786 Kay, Robert, 219 Kayendanegea     See Brant, Joseph Keawemauhili (Hawaiian ruler), 674 Keith, George, 579 Kellerman, François Christophe de, 823 Kelvin, Baron, 112 Kelvin scale, 114, 285 Kemble, John Philip, 211 Kemble, Sarah     See Siddons, Sarah Kennett, Brackley, 653 Kentucky Resolves, 910 Kenyon, Lloyd, 655 Kepler, Johannes, 42 Keyboard instruments, 66 Khoikhoi peoples (South Africa), 645 Kiakhta, Treaty of (1727), 189-191 Kiala, 122 Kickapoos, 123, 455 Kim Bomu, Thomas, 703 Kinetic theory of gases, 246-249 King George’s War     See Austrian Succession, War of the King William’s War (1689-1697), 29 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 251-253 King’s Mountain, Battle of (1780), 589 Kinloch, Sir Francis, 753-754 Kintyre and Lorne, marquess of     See Argyll, second duke of Kira Yoshinaka, 16 Kirkland, Samuel, 609 Kirov Theatre Company (St. Petersburg, Russia), 251 Kirsten, Peter, 27 Kite experiment (Franklin), 364 Kiwalao (Hawaiian ruler), 674 Klaus, Karl Karlovich, 894 Kléber, Jean-Baptiste, 841, 903 Klein, Ernst Ferdinand, 812, 849 Kleist, Ewald Georg von, 303 Klinger, Friedrich Maximilian, 542 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, 542 Knapton, George, 205 Knowledge, a priori, 658 Kodiak Island, 195 Kojo, 202 Kokusenya kassen     See Battles of Coxinga, The Kollonitsch, Leopold, 35 Konbaung Dynasty, 360 Korea     religion, 703-705     trade with Japan, 153 Kokciuszko, Tadeusz, 538 Kozukenosuke, Kira     See Kira Yoshinaka Kratzenstein, Christian Gottlieb, 305 Krenitsyn, Pyotr Kuzmich, 194 Kritik der praktischen Vernunft     See Critique of Practical Reason Kritik der reinen Vernunft     See Critique of Pure Reason Kritik der Urteilskraft     See Critique of Judgment, The Krizhanich, Yury, 171 Kuchuk Kainarji, Treaty of (1774), 27, 507, 562-564 Küçük Kaynarca, Treaty of     See Kuchuk Kainarji, Treaty of Kulliye (mosque complexes), 334 Kulmus, Johann Adam, 155 Kunstkammeren (cabinets of curiosities), 297     See also Cabinet du Roi Kuruc rebellion (1703-1711), 35 Kwo©    Ilsin, Francis Xavier, 703 Kyoho era reforms, 153 La Plata, viceroyalty of, 595-598 La Scala (Milan, Italy), 605, 637-639 La Baume, Nicolas Auguste de     See Montrevel, marquis de Labdon, 346 Labor     agricultural, 753     forced, 98, 296     and manufacturing, 640, 711, 787     mechanization of, 219     and national wealth, 601     and productivity, 414     reform, 282     See also Factories    Industrial Revolution    Machines    Mechanization of labor La Bourdonnais, Bertrand-François Mahé    de, 311 La Condamine, Charles-Marie de, 231 Lacy, Peter, 238 Lafayette, marquis de, 606, 635, 767, 824 Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, 323 Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, comte de l’Empire     See Lagrange, Joseph-Louis Lagrangia, Giuseppe Luigi     See Lagrange, Joseph-Louis Laissez-faire economics, 602 Lake, Gerard, 906 Lally, comte de, 311 La Luzerne, Chevalier de, 633, 663 Lambertini, Prospero Lorenzo     See Benedict XIV La Mettrie, Julien Offroy de, 158, 528 Lancaster, Treaty of (1744), 377 Land acquisition in colonial America, 244-246, 463, 465-466 Land Act of 1780, 714 Land Act of 1796, 715 Land Act of 1800, 715 Land surveys, 195, 715 Lande, Jean Baptiste, 249 Landrechts, 849-851 Langa, 645 Languages     English, 314, 865     epistolary, 180     of the gods, 179     and grammar, 865     Latin, 865     proto-Indo-European, 727-729     Spanish, 107     of symbols or emblems, 179 Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 215, 270, 445, 686, 878 Laplace coefficients, 687 Laporte, Roland, 32 Lathes, 6, 712 Latin, study of, 865 Latitude at sea, 358 Laughing gas, 916 Launay, Bernard-René    de, 767 Laurent, Auguste, 534 Lausen, Fermín de, 519 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 168, 372, 381, 564-565, 642, 661, 719, 776, 846 Law     Austria, 851     France, 775, 851     and geography, 329     Germany, 851     in literature, 288     Prussia, 849-851     and psychologism, 329     and speech, 235     See also Legal reform Law, John, 145, 150 Lawrence, Charles, 383 Lawrence, Stringer, 311 Lay, Benjamin, 580 Le Dynasty, 536 Le Man De, 536 Le Mans, Battle of (1793), 841 Lead-chamber process, 306-308 Leadhills Reading Society, 282-284 League of Armed Neutrality, 636 Leblanc, Nicolas, 756 Le Breton, André, 354 Le Brun, Charles, 241 Le Clerc, Charles, 803 Leclerc, Georges-Louis     See Buffon, comte de Le Despencer, fifteenth Baron     See Dashwood, Francis Lee, Ann, 34 Lee, Arthur, 696 Lee, Charles, 568, 594 Lee, Ezra, 618 Lee, Richard Henry, 568, 594, 615, 806 Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, 487 Legal reform     France, 851     Habsburg Empire, 576-578     Prussia, 849-851     Russia, 498-500 Legendre, Adrien-Marie, 686 Legge, William     See Dartmouth, second earl of Legislative Assembly (France), 820 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 13, 125, 131, 171, 194, 318, 323, 419, 658 Leibniz-Wolff school of metaphysics, 658 Leiden des jungen Werthers, Die     See Sorrows of Young Werther, The Lencastre, Joseph     See Carvajal y Lancáster, José    de Lenni Lenapes, 244, 375, 455, 463, 468, 556, 794 Lenz, Jakob Michael Reinhold, 542 Leopold I, 19, 35, 50 Leopold II, 576 Leopold Joseph, 480 Le Picqué, Charles, 249 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 542 Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, Gabrielle-Émilie     See Châtelet, marquise du Letters Concerning the English Nation (Voltaire), 160, 186 Letters on Education with Observations on Religious and Metaphysical Subjects (Macaulay), 811 Letters Written During a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (Wollstonecraft), 811 Lettre sur les aveugles     See Essay on Blindness, An Lettres Persanes     See Persian Letters Lettres philosophiques     See Letters Concerning the English Nation Levashov, Mikhail Dmitrievich, 194 Lewenhaupt, Adam Ludwig, 10 Lewis and Clark expedition, 845 Lexicography, 314 Lexington and Concord, Battle of (1775), 581-585, 615 Leyden jar, 303-306, 409, 927 Lhasa, Tibet, 346 Libel, 237     Thomas Paine, 802     John Wilkes, 452     John Peter Zenger, 233-236 Liberalism, 158, 801     See also Conservatism    Democracy Liberty     and economic theory, 602     and justice, 421     Montesquieu, 329     personal, 407     See also Freedom    Human rights Libraries, 88-90     Ireland, 25-27     Russia, 172     Scotland, 282-284 Licensing Act (1662), 90, 236 Licensing Act (1693), 90 Licensing Act (1737), 288 Liele, George, 545 Light     and photosynthesis, 642     speed of, 321     theory of, 42-45 Lightning     as electricity, 362-365, 927     rods, 332 Lilliput (Swift), 182 Lima, Peru, 919 Limeys, 367 Lind, James, 366, 505 Lindsay, Alexander     See Balcarres, sixth earl of “Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey”    (Wordsworth), 671 Linguistics, 727-729 Linnaean classification system, 230 Linnaeus, Carolus, 112, 228, 284 Linné, Carl von     See Linnaeus, Carolus Lisbon, Portugal    earthquake, 386-388, 419 Literacy     and journalism, 90     Middle East, 28     Scotland, 282-284 Literature     antiauthoritarianism, 543     autobiography, 670-673     children, 183, 671     death, 543     epistolary, 272     hypocrisy, 288     legal profession, 288     marriage, 273     modern novel, 271-274     nationalism, 543     neoclassicism, 544     realism, 142, 272, 544     Romanticism, 542     samurai, 40     satire, 181-184, 287     social criticism, 349-351, 543     suicide, 40     tragedy, 544     women, 273, 543     working class, 141 Lithography, 898-901 Little Turtle, 794, 857 Little Turtle’s War (1790-1794), 456, 794-796 Livestock breeding, 427-429 Livingston, Robert R., 616, 758 Lobsang Tashi, 346 Locatelli, Pietro, 867, 869 Lochaber, Treaty of (1770), 465 Lochow and Glenyla, viscount of     See Argyll, second duke of Locke, John, 159, 254, 282, 371, 438, 688, 801 Lodi, Battle of (1796), 885 Logan, James (1674-1751), 244 Logan, James (c    1725-1780), 555 Logan County Revival, 781 Logic, 659 Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilyevich, 297 Lomonosov Museum (St. Petersburg, Russia), 298 London Company (theater group), 483 London Magazine, 237, 554 London Missionary Society, 827 Longhorn (Leicester) cattle, 427 Longhouse religion (American Indians), 914-916 Longitude Act (1714), 114, 358 Longitude at sea, 114-117, 174, 358-360 Longueville, Chevalier de, 224 Looms, 640, 711-714, 787 López, María, 98 Lord Dunmore’s War (1774), 555-558 Lorraine, 480-482 Lorraine, Emmanuel-Maurice de     See Elbeuf, prince d’ Lozf 4Alt Kh3n Zand, 176 Louis, Antoine, 775 Louis XIV, 6, 19, 32, 35, 50, 58, 95, 103, 109, 120 Louis XV, 145, 163, 221, 251, 279, 336, 422, 436, 480, 485, 525, 591 Louis XVI, 591, 633, 683-684, 690, 761, 764, 767, 775, 820, 834     execution of, 834-837, 840 Louis-Auguste     See Louis XVI Louis-Philippe (Louis XIX), 824, 842 Louis-Philippe-Joseph     See Orléans, duc d’ Louisbourg, Siege of (1758), 102, 383, 403-406 Louisiana Purchase (1803), 790, 805 Louisiana Territory, 790, 875     and French economy, 145 Louvre Palace, Paris, 242 Love Suicides at Sonezaki, The (Chikamatsu), 40-42 Lowth, Robert, 865 Loyalists     American Revolution, 676     migration to Canada, 676-678 Lucas, Charles, 460 Lucretius, 158 Luddites, 220 Lunar distance method (navigation), 358 Lunar orbit, 45, 174 Lunar tables, 358-360 Lutheranism, 210, 818 Luzhin, Fedor, 194 Lyell, Charles, 707 Lymphatic system, 392-394 Lyon, Matthew, 908 Lyttelton, William Henry, 424 Mac Thien Tu, 522 Macanaz, Melchor Rafael de, 88 Macandal, François, 804 Macartney, George, 831 Macaulay, Catherine, 811 McCracken, Henry Joy, 906 McDonald, Angus, 557 MacDonald, Fionnghal     See MacDonald, Flora MacDonald, Flora, 300 McGready, James, 781 McHenry, James, 897 Machines     craftwork, 6     and electricity, 303     for execution, 775     farming, 7-10, 753-755     humans as, 395     Industrial Revolution, 219     steam engines, 56-58, 786     steel manufacture, 163     textile manufacturing, 640-642, 711-714, 786-788, 796-798, 863-865     vehicles, 526     weaving, 711     and written communication, 117 McKean, Thomas, 852 Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, 842 Mackenzie River, Northwest Territories, Canada, 845 Maclaurin, Colin, 269, 293, 707 Macpherson, James, 542 Mad Anthony     See Wayne, Anthony Madhava R3o Sindhia     See Mah3d3ji Madison, James, 695, 724, 741, 745, 778, 789, 806, 860, 887 Madras, India, 311, 496 Madrid, Treaty of (1750), 343-345 Maffei, Francesco Scipione, 66 Maghreb, 573 Magnetism, 409-411 Magnus, Albertus, 133 Mah3d3ji, 571 Mahmud I, 239, 266, 334 Mahmud Ghilzai, 69, 176 Maia, Manuel de, 386 Maintenon, Madame de, 32 Malartic Proclamation (1792), 497 Maldonado, Pedro Vicente, 231 Malesherbes, Chrétien-Guillaume de Lamoignon de, 355, 406, 438, 834 Malouine Islands     See Falkland Islands Malplaquet, Battle of (1709), 20, 74-77 Malthus, Daniel, 901 Malthus, Thomas Robert, 901 Malthusian population theory, 901-903 Man a Machine (La Mettrie), 160, 528 Manchester School, 602 Manchu China, 189 Mangalore, Treaty of (1784), 496 Mangkubumi, 48 Mantua, fall of (1797), 885 Manumission Society, New York     See New York Manumission Society Manzuoli, Giovanni, 436 Mapmaking, 231, 368 Maquinna, 791 Mar, sixth earl of, 63, 128 Mar3th3 War    See First Mar3th3 War Mar3th3s, 571 Marbury v    Madison (1803), 774 Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund, 316 Maria Theresa, 252, 277, 279, 336, 389, 436, 538, 576 Marian apparition, 98 Marie (queen of France), 480 Marie-Antoinette, 684, 691 Marion, Elie, 34 Maritime medicine, 366 Maritime Provinces, 676 Market regulation, 602 Marlborough, duchess of     See Churchill, Sarah Marlborough, first duke of, 19, 29, 50, 74, 85, 103 Maroon War, First (1730-1739), 202-205, 430, 873 Maroon War, Second (1795-1796), 872-875 Maroonage, 224 Maroons, 202-205, 430-432, 804, 872-875 Marrant, John, 693 Marriage and literature, 273 Marriage of Figaro, The (Beaumarchais), 690-693     See also Nozze di Figaro, Le Marsh, Narcissus, 25 Marshall, Daniel, 260 Marshall, John, 701, 774, 863, 895 Marsin, Ferdinand de, 50 Martin, Luther, 742 Martinez, Esteban José, 791 Martyn, Benjamin, 210 Marx, Karl, 603 Mary II, 22, 58 Mary of Modena, 22 Mascoutens, 123 Maskelyne, Nevil, 358 Mason, George, 742, 806 Masons, 693-695 Mass action law (Berthollet), 848 Mass in B Minor (Bach), 14 Mass production     ceramics, 414-416     cloth, 492     See also Factories    Industrial Revolution    Labor    Machines    Mechanization of labor Massachusetts Bay Colony, 532, 568 Mataram, Indonesia, 48 Material culture and archaeology, 326 Materialist philosophy, 160, 406, 528 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, The (Newton), 43, 45, 53 Mathematics     education, 319     and Kantian philosophy, 659 Matter     and motion, 53, 133, 247, 293-295, 878     and nature, 529     in time, 707 Matthey, George, 893 Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de, 158, 352 Maurice     See Saxe, comte de Maverick, Samuel, 531 Maximilian II Emanuel, 50 Maya Rebellion of 1712, 98-100 Mayan civilization, 98-100, 716-719 Mayer, Johann Tobias, 358 Mayer, Robert, 644 Mazepa, Ivan Stepanovich, 10, 72 Mazrui Dynasty, 5 Meares, John, 791 Mécanique céleste     See Treatise upon Analytical Mechanics, A Mechanization of labor, 9, 219, 640, 711, 753     See also Factories    Industrial Revolution    Machines Mechkilikishi, 244 Meckel, Johann Friedrich, the Elder, 393 Medici, Cosimo III de’, 66 Medici, Ferdinando de’, 66 Medici Oriental Press, 27 Medicine     anesthetics, 916     and chemical elements, 916     and clinical trials, 366     and electricity, 305     Japanese, 154     maritime, 366     pharmacology, 154     See also Diseases Medoks, Mikhail, 604 Mehmed Rasim, 334 Meikle, Andrew, 753 Meikle, George, 753 Mekaga, 122 Membranes and osmosis, 331 Memoirs of Jacques Casanova de Seingalt, The (Casanova), 671 Memoirs of the Author of “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman” (Godwin), 811 Memoirs on Steel and Iron (Réaumur), 164 “Men are created equal, All,”    617 Mengs, Anton Raphael, 698 Mennonites, 579 Menominees, 123 Menshikov, Aleksandr Danilovich, 10, 37, 72, 189 Menzel, Adolph von, 898 Menzies, Michael, 754 Mephitic air (nitrogen), 381 Mercantilism, 145, 602 Mercury, 321 Mercury thermometer, 112-114 Meridian Conference (1884), 116 Mersey and Irwell Navigation, England, 417 Meslier, Jan, 160 Mesmer, Franz Anton, 622 Mesquakis     See Fox Indians Messiah (Handel), 290-293 Mestizos, 651 Metallurgy, 64-66, 163-164, 678-680, 893-895 Metaphysics, 254, 658 Meteorites, 298 Meteorology, 226-227 Method of Chymical Nomenclature (Lavoisier et al.), 720 Méthode de nomenclature chimique     See Method of Chymical Nomenclature Methodist Church, 653, 734, 782     camp meetings, 782     colonial America, 260, 509-512 Methodist Episcopal Church, 735 Methuen Treaty (1703), 19, 103 Metric system, 233, 879 Mexican independence, 99 Mexican Indians, 716 Mézières, 525 Miamis, 455, 556, 794, 858 Michikinikwa     See Little Turtle Microorganisms, 488 Microscopes, 488 Middle class     and classical music, 290     in drama, 692     and education, 865     England, 80     higher education, 701-703     literature, 143     Russian, 499 Middle Passage, 1, 430, 818 Middlesex, earl of     See Sackville, Charles Mifflin, Thomas, 852 Military     American, 895     French, 748     history of, 689     Russian, 748 Military reform, Ottoman Empire, 239 Milky Way galaxy, 732 Mill, Henry, 117 Mill, John Stuart, 408 Miller, Phineas, 828 Miller, Robert, 712 Mills     See Cotton industry    Flax mills    Rolling mills    Spinning mills    Textile mills    Weaving mills Mills, John, 7 Mineral Cabinet, 297 Mineralogy, 297-299 Mingos, 455, 556 Mining     coal, 417, 631     lead, 282 Minutemen, 581, 585 Mir Ja4far, 397 Mir Kasim, 397 Mir Vays Khan Hotaki, 69 Mirabaud     See Holbach, Paul-Henri-Dietrich d’ Missionaries, Christian, 826-828 Missionary societies, 826-828 Missions    map, 520     Monterey, California, 520     San Diego, California, 520 Mississippi Company, 145, 151 Mississippi River, 374     navigation rights, 875 Mita (labor system), 650 Moai (stone statues), 166 Modest Proposal . . . , A (Swift), 183 Mohawks, 375, 377, 552, 609, 696, 915 Moivre, Abraham de, 214 Mokuohai, Battle of (1786), 674 Molasses Act (1733), 477 Moll Flanders (Defoe), 272 Molyneux, Samuel, 321 Monarchy, 439     Montesquieu, 328     Thomas Paine, 599, 615     See also Absolute monarchy Monbeton de Brouillan, Joseph de, 100 Monceau, Henri-Louis Duhamel du, 7 Monckton, Robert, 383 Money and Trade Considered with a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money (Law), 145 Mongolia, 189 Mongols in Russia, 171 Moñino y Redondo, José     See Floridablanca, count de Monmouth, Battle of (1778), 589 Monro, Henry, 906 Monro II, Alexander, 392 Monroe, James, 860 Monroe Doctrine, 888 Mons, 360 Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, 81, 158 Montcalm, Louis-Joseph de, 376 Montcalm, marquis de     See Montcalm, Louis-Joseph de Montcalm de Saint-Véran, Louis-Joseph de     See Montcalm, Louis-Joseph de Montesquieu, 158, 328, 355, 498, 850 Montgolfier, Jacques-Étienne, 683, 708 Montgolfier, Joseph-Michel, 683, 708 Montgomery, Archibald, 424 Montgomery, Richard, 594, 626 Montreal, Siege of (1760), 376 Montrevel, marquis de, 32 Monumenta Britannica (Aubrey), 139 Moon (of Earth), 45, 174, 269, 322, 358 Moore, James (1640-1706), 29 Moore, James (1675/1680-1724), 83 Moors, 573 Moral law, 329 Moral philosophy, 407, 601 Morales, Gaspar, 295 Morceau de réception (“masterpiece”), 241 Morea, Jean, 821 Morfontaine, Treaty of (1800), 897 Moritz, Karl Philipp, 542 Mormonism, 781 Moroccan-Spanish conflicts, 574 Morris, Gouverneur, 741 Morris, Lewis, 233 Morris, Lewis, Jr., 234 Mossel, Jacob, 48 Motion     and matter, 53, 133, 247, 293-295, 878     and nature, 529 Mounier, Jean-Joseph, 764 Mount Asama, Japan, eruption of, 723 Mount Chimborazo, Ecuador, 919 Mount Vesuvius, Italy, 325 Mountain climbing, 919 Mozart, Leopold, 435 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 15, 290, 435, 637, 690, 692, 868 Mughal India, 69 Muwammad III, 573 Muwammad Bey, 308 Muwammad Wasan Kh3n, 176 Muwammad Kartm Beg     See Kartm Kh3n Zand Muhsinzade Mehmed Pala, 506 Mulattoes, 94, 624, 803 Multiple proportions law (Dalton), 848 Münnich, Burkhard Christoph von, 238, 266 Murad Bey, 903 Murphy, John, 906 Murray, Lord George, 300 Murray, James, 558 Murray, John     See Dunmore, fourth earl of Murray, Lindley, 865 Murray, Matthew, 863 Murray’s Mills, England, 788 Muscles, human, 395 Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Italy, 326 Museums     Russia, 298, 889-892     Spain, 698-700 Musgrove, Mary, 208 Music     Baroque, 14     and Christianity, 290     classical, 290-293, 435-438, 443     composition, 15     modern, 14-16     performance, 435-438, 868     piano, 67     violin, 867-870 Musschenbroek, Pieter van, 303 Mustafa III, 506, 562 Mustapha III     See Mustafa III Myanmar     See Burmese unification Myothugyi (local headman), 361 Myrtle, Marmaduke     See Addison, Joseph Mysore Wars (1767-1799), 495-498 N3dir Khan Afshar     See N3dir Sh3h N3dir Qolt Beg     See N3dir Sh3h N3dir Sh3h, 69, 176, 341 N3dir Sh3h Afshar     See N3dir Sh3h Nagari letters, 727 Naïve realism, 255 Nakaz, 498 Nanking, Treaty of (1842), 833 Nanny, 202, 430 Nanny Town, Jamaica, 204 Nantes, Edict of (1598), 32 Naoneala’a, Treaty of (1738), 673 Napoleon I     British navy, 748     Jacques-Louis David, 731     Egypt, 28, 903     French Revolution, 820     German intelligentsia, 814     Haitian independence, 805     Italian campaigns, 884     La Scala, Milan, 638     Pierre-Simon Laplace, 878     music patronage, 867     Battle of the Nile, 911     rise to power, 924     Rosetta stone, 921     sugar industry, 316 Napoleonic Code, 851 Napoleonic era, 924-926 Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815), 649, 713, 748 Narva, Battle of (1700), 11 National Assembly (France), 765, 767, 775, 834     See also Estates-General    French Revolution    Third Estate National Convention (France), 820, 825 National debt     Britain, 150     France, 145     United States, 778, 789-791 National Institute of Anthropology and History (Mexico), 718 National Vaccine Institute (United States), 883 Nationalism     Austria, 577     England, 784     idea of, 690     Ireland, 181     literature, 543     United States, 568-570, 593-595, 663-666, 789 Native Americans     effects of whiskey trade on, 795     religion, 782     as slaves, 92, 224, 837     See also American Indians    Indigenous revolts Natural disasters     Caribbean, 656-658     Japan, 723 Natural History, General and Particular (Buffon), 161, 338-341, 488, 706 Natural history collections, 698 Natural law, 178, 328, 339, 688 Naturales (indigenous Peruvians), 651 Naturalization Act (1798), 909 Nature     abhors a vacuum, 331     as cause and effect, 529     and change, 529     and matter, 529     and motion, 529     philosophy of, 528     study of, 338 Nautical Almanac, 359 Naval reform, British, 367 Navigation     and astronomy, 174     and longitude, 114-117, 358     and time, 114, 174     and wind, 226 Navy, British, 619     and disease prevention, 367     See also Admiralty (Royal Navy) Navy, U.S., 896 Ndlambe, 645 Neau, Elias, 92 Nebulae, 732 Nebular hypothesis, 878-880 Nébuleuse primitive (nebular cloud), 879 Necker, Jacques, 591, 761, 767 Nedim, Ahmed, 136 Needham, John Tuberville, 340, 487 Negro Act (1740), 265 Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage, Society for the Relief of Free     See Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage Neilson, Samuel, 815 Neipperg, count von, 266 Nelson, Lord, 903, 911 Neoclassicism     architecture, 206, 327, 433, 698     art, 206, 327, 729-732     literature, 544     See also Classicism Neo-Confucianism, 704 Nepal, 348 Nerchinsk, Treaty of (1689), 190 Nerves, human, 395 Netherlands     Austrian, 278, 281, 337, 577, 820     New Netherland colony, 92     slave trade, 1     Spanish, 20, 74, 106, 121, 823     trade with Japan, 153     See also Holland Neue Erdbeschreibung     See New System of Geography, A Neville, Dinah, 579 Nevlehirli Damat Ebrahem Pala, 136 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 677 New France     map, 101, 104 New Héloïse, The (Rousseau), 439 New Horse Houghing Husbandry, The (Tull), 9 New Jersey and women’s suffrage, 612-615 New Jersey Plan, 742 New Jerusalem Church, Georgia, 210 New Netherland, 92 New Orleans, Louisiana, 376 New Science, The (Vico), 178-181 New Spain     map, 104 New Spelling Dictionary, The (Entick), 866 New System of Geography, A (Büsching), 368-370 New Theater, Philadelphia, 484 “New Theory About Light and Colours”    (Newton), 43 New York Manumission Society, 624 New York Suspending Act (1767), 493 Newcastle, first duke of, 155 Newcomen, Thomas, 56, 474, 786 Newcomen engine, 475 Newfoundland, 30 “Newgate’s Garland”    (Gay), 192 Newspapers     England, 80-82, 90-92, 237, 554     France, 621-623     Ireland, 460-463     United States, 910     See also Freedom of the press    Journalism    Libel Newton, Sir Isaac, 45     England’s astronomy wars, 45     calculus, 131, 318     chemistry, 133     electricity, 303     influence on geology, 707     gravitational theory, 174, 269, 322, 409     Halley’s comet, 53     Abraham de Moivre, 214     theory of motion, 248, 293, 878     natural law, 338, 688     Optics, 42     philosophes, 159     influence on sensationalism, 371 Newtonian mechanics, 270, 293 Nguyen Hue, 536 Nguyen Lu, 536 Nguyen Nhac, 536 Nguyen Phuc Anh, 522, 536 Nguyen Van Hue     See Nguyen Hue Nicholson, Francis, 29 Nicholson, William, 927 Niepperg, count von, 238 Nievve Herball, A (Dodoens), 154 Nijmegen, Treaty of (1679), 120 Nile, Battle of the (1798), 905, 911-913 Nile River, Africa, 513-515, 904 Nineteenth Amendment (U.S    Constitution), 612, 617 Ninjf (human passions), 41 Nitrogen, 662 Nitrous oxide (laughing gas), 916-917 Noailles, Louis-Antoine de, 109 Nollet, Jean-Antoine, 303, 331 Nootka Sound Convention (1790), 791-793 Noro Genjf, 153 North, Frederick     See North, Lord North, Lord, 493, 550-551, 558, 653, 680 North America     battle for hegemony, 29-31     European colonization, 373-377     exploration, 842     map, 104, 464, 596, xliv     Spanish colonization, 519 North Briton (newspaper), 554 North Briton controversy, 451-454 North West Company, 843 Northern Star (newspaper), 815 Northern War, Second     See Great Northern War Northern Whig Club, 815 Northwest Ordinance (1787), 714, 737-740, 837 Northwest Passage, 791, 845 Northwest Territories, Canada, 845 Northwest Territory, 739, 859 Notes on the State of Virginia (Jefferson), 340 Nottingham, second earl of, 85 Nova Scotia, 383, 676     Maroon refugees, 204, 874 Novels, 271     comic, 289     of manners, 273     social reform, 289 Noverre, Jean-Georges, 250 Nozze di Figaro, Le (Mozart), 692 Nur-u Osmaniye, Istanbul, 334-336 Nutation of Earth’s axis, 321-323 Nutimus, 244 Nu’uanu, Battle of (1795), 675 Nystad, Treaty of (1721), 12 Oath of the Tennis Court (1789), 764-766 O’Bail, John     See Cornplanter “Observationer om twänne beständiga Grader på    en Thermometer”    (Celsius), 286 Observations on the Diseases Incident to Seamen (Blane), 367 Observations on the Diseases of the Army (Pringle), 366 Observations on the Scurvy (Trotter), 367 Obwandiyag     See Pontiac (c. 1720-1769) Occasional Conformity Bill (1711), 85-88 Oconostota, 424 Oeiras, count of     See Pombal, marquês de Offset printing, 900 Oglethorpe, James Edward, 208, 264 Ohio Company of Associates, 702, 715 Ohio Company of Virginia, 377 Ohio Country, 374, 560, 739, 794, 857 bishi Kuranosuke     See bishi Yoshio bishi Yoshio, 16 Okitsugu, Tanuma, 722 Old Northwest, 739, 794, 857     See also Ohio Country Oman, 341-343 Omani Arabs, 4 On Acid Humor Arising from Foods, and on White Magnesia (Black), 380 On Freedom of the Press and of Thought (Klein), 813 Oneidas, 696 Onions, Peter, 678 Onondagas, 377, 696 Opera, 441-443, 692     ballad, 191-193     George Frideric Handel, 290     Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 436     Russia, 604 Opera houses, 637-639 Opium, 916 Optics (Newton), 42-45 Optimism, 420 Oratorios, 290 Ordinance of 1784, 737 Ordinance of 1785, 714-716 Ordoñez y Aguiar, Ramón de, 716 Oregon Treaty (1846), 793 O’Reilly, Alejandro, 383, 573 Orfeo and Euridice (Gluck), 441-443 Organ music, 14 Organ systems, 395 Organic chemistry, 331 Orient, Army of the     See Army of the Orient Orientalism (Said), 728 Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation, The (Jenner), 883 Orinoco River, Venezuela, 232, 918 Oriskany Creek, Battle of (1777), 589, 626-628 Orlav, Count     See Orlov, Grigori Grigoryevich Orléans, duc d’, 109, 145, 756 Orlov, Aleksey Grigoryevich, 562 Orlov, Count     See Orlov, Aleksey Grigoryevich Orlov, Grigori Grigoryevich, 498 Orry, Philibert, 241 Ørsted, Hans Christian, 928 Orthodox Church, Russian, 37, 171, 548 Orthogonal polynomials, 687 Ortografía (Royal Academy, Spain), 108 Osman III, 334 Osmium, 894 Osmometers, 332 Osmosis, 331-333 Ossian, 542 Osterman, Count Andrei Ivanovich, 238, 266 Österreich-Lothringen, Maria Antonia Josepha Joanna von     See Marie-Antoinette Oswald, Richard, 680 Otis, Harrison Gray, 908 Otis, James, 494 Otis, Mercy     See Warren, Mercy Otis Otis, Samuel Allyne, 758 Ottawas, 455, 463, 794 Ottoman architecture, 334-336 Ottoman-Austrian conflicts, 77-79 Ottoman Empire, 239, 308-310     Great Northern War, 10     map, 267     Tulip Age, 136-138     Westernization, 136 Ottoman-French conflicts, 905 Ottoman-Russian conflicts, 77-79, 238-241 Ottoman-Russian Wars (1768-1792), 506-509 Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man (Herder), 688-690 Ovations, tradition of, 292 Ovist-spermist debate (embryology), 352 Oxford, first earl of (Robert Harley), 90, 103, 141, 150     See also Walpole, Sir Robert Oxidation, 170 Oxygen, 170, 488, 564-567, 661     in photosynthesis, 642 Pacal, 716 Pacheco, Juan Manuel Fernández, 107 Paer, Ferdinando, 867 Paganini, Elisa, 869 Paganini, Niccolò, 867 Pain, 916 Paine, Thomas, 580, 598, 615, 633-634, 784-785, 801, 812 Paisiello, Giovanni, 692 Pakubuwona I     See Puger, Pangéran Palaeographia sacra (Stukeley), 140 Palenque ruins, 716-719 Palestine, 308-310 Palitzsch, Johann Georg, 53 Palladium, 893 Pallas, Peter Simon, 297 Pamela (Richardson), 271-274, 287 Panin, Count Nikita Ivanovich, 498 Pantheism, 158 Papacy and Voltaire, 473 Papal bulls, 109-112 Papin, Denis, 56 Paragenesis (mineral genesis), 298 Parallax of a star, 321 Pardaillan, Louis-Antoine de, 241-242 Paris     art salons, 241-243     French Revolution, 767 Paris, François, 187 Paris, Peace of (1763), 376, 431, 449-451, 455, 559-560 Paris, Treaty of (1783), 590, 608, 610, 676, 680, 682-683, 696, 714, 774, 857, 861, 875 Paris Commune, 769 Parker, Arthur Caswell, 914 Parker, John, 581 Parkinson, Leonard, 872 Parliament     British, 24, 58, 61, 91, 150, 155-156, 236, 451, 461, 477, 493, 551, 553-555, 568, 615, 784, 929-931     French, 784     Irish, 25, 461, 929-931     Scottish, 58 Parliamentary reporting, 236-238, 553-555 Parma, Battle of (1734), 222 Parr, John, 676 Parsons, William, 733 Particle theory of light, 44 Partitions of Poland, 223, 252, 538-541 Pascal, Blaise, 186 Passarowitz, Treaty of (1718), 136, 239 Passion and reason, 407 Pasteur, Louis, 488-489 Pastoralis officii (Clement XI), 111 Paterson, William, 741, 772 Pâtissier, Charles-Joseph     See Bussy-Castelnau, marquis de Patkul, Johann Reinhold von, 10 Patriots     American Revolution, 551, 582, 634, 676     Irish independence, 181, 929 Patrona Halil revolt (1730), 137 Paul I, 892 Paxton Boys’    Massacres (1763), 466-468 Payne, John, 349 Peace of _______     See specific name Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, 675 Pearson, George, 881 Peasant revolts     France, 32-35, 769, 839-842     Hungary, 35 Peasantry     France, 820, 839     Prussia, 850     Russia, 499, 749     See also Peasant revolts    Poverty and government    Social reform Pedanius Dioscorides, 228 Pedro de Cevallos, 595 Peel, Sir Robert, 640 Peleioholani (Hawaiian ruler), 673 Pelham, Henry, 336 Pelham, Thomas     See Newcastle, first duke of Pelletier, Jacques Nicolas, 775 Pemberton, Israel, 578 Pemberton, James, 579 Pendulum clocks, 115 Penn, John, 466 Penn, Thomas, 244 Penn, William, 466 Pennsylvania     Tuscaroras, 83 Pennsylvania Magazine, 598 Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery, 578-581 Pensées philosophiques (Diderot), 161 Pensées sur l’interprétation de la nature (Diderot), 339 Perception, 659 Perceval, John, 208 Pérez, Juan, 791 Persia, control of, 176-178 Persian-Afghan Wars (1709-1747), 69-71, 176 Persian Civil Wars (1725-1794), 176-178 Persian Letters (Montesquieu), 159 Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America . . . (Humboldt), 920 Peru, viceroyalty of, 596 Peruvian Current     See Humboldt Current Peruvian independence, 650-653 Pessimism, 420 Peter, Jesse, 546 Peter I     See Peter the Great Peter III, 890 Peter the Great, 6, 10, 35, 37, 72, 77, 171, 189, 194, 249, 297, 890 Pétion, Alexandre, 803 Petrovich, Alexis, 37 Petrovsky Theatre, Moscow, 604 Petty-Fitzmaurice, William     See Shelburne, second earl of Peyron, Pierre, 729 Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 331 Pharmacology, 154 Philip V, 19, 88, 103, 107, 120, 200, 221, 251 Philip of Anjou     See Philip V Philippe II     See Orléans, duc d’ Philippe Égalité     See Orléans, duc d’ Philippine Islands, 295 Philipse, Frederick, 235 Phillip, Arthur, 750 Philology, 727-729 Philosophe, Le (Marsais), 160 Philosopher’s stone, 168 Philosophes, 354, 528, 784 Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica     See Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, The Philosophical Conjectures on the History of Mankind (Iselin), 689 Philosophical Dictionary for the Pocket, A (Voltaire), 471-474, 529 Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding (Hume), 254 Philosophical geography, 369 Philosophical Letters     See Letters Concerning the English Nation Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, 706 Philosophie de l’histoire     See Philosophy of History Philosophy     analytic, 660     of history, 178     and reality, 659 Philosophy of History (Voltaire), 689 Philosophy of Rhetoric, The (Campbell), 866 Philosophy of Right, The (Hegel), 814 Phipps, James, 881 Phlogiston theory, 168-171, 381, 566, 662, 719     See also Oxygen Phoenicians and American settlement, 717 Phosphates, 307 Photosynthesis, 642-645 Phraya Taksin     See Taksin Phya Tak     See Taksin Physics as a term, 304 Physiocracy, 412, 591, 601 Physiology     circulatory system, 392     human, 395-397     lymphatic system, 392-394     plants, 642     See also Anatomy    Chemistry    Medicine Pianofortes, 68 Pianos, 66-69 Pichegru, Charles, 821 Pickering, Timothy, 737, 895, 908 Picric acid, 534-535 Picturesque movement, 434 Piedmont (Italy), 884 Piermarini, Giuseppe, 637 Pietism, 579, 818, 826 Pig iron, 678 Pigneau de Béhaine, Pierre-Joseph-Georges, 536 Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, 859 Pilâtre de Rozier, Jean-François, 683, 708 Pilgrimage sites, 188 Pilmore, Joseph, 736 Pinckney, Charles, 1, 742 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, 895 Pinckney, Thomas, 860, 875 Pinckney’s Treaty (1795), 852, 862, 875-877 Pipe, Captain, 557 Piqué, Charles le, 250 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, 432 Pitcairn, John, 581 Pitt, William, the Elder, 100, 373, 389, 403, 449, 451, 493 Pitt, William, the Younger, 601, 798, 817, 861, 870, 907, 929 Pitt of Burton-Pynsent, Viscount     See Pitt, William, the Elder Pittsburgh, Treaty of (1775), 557 Pius VI, 834, 884 Plague, 125, 147-150 Plains of Abraham, Battle of the (1759), 376, 391 Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language (Johnson), 315 Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture . . . , A (Fischer von Erlach), 127 Plan of Union (1754), 376-379, 569 Planetary orbits, 53, 878 Plant physiology, 642 Plant Species (Linnaeus), 230 Plassey, Battle of (1757), 313, 391, 397-400, 571 Plassey, first Baron Clive of     See Clive, Robert Plata region, South America, 344 Platinum, 893 Plattes, Gabriel, 7 Playfair, John, 706 Playfair, William, 754 Pleasure palaces, 136 Plettenberg, Joachim van, 645 Plumier, Charles, 6 Plütschau, Henry, 826 Pneumatic Medical Institute, Bristol, England, 916 Poem on the Lisbon Earthquake (Voltaire), 419, 472 Point Pleasant, Battle of (1774), 557 Poisson, Jeanne-Antoinette     See Pompadour, Madame de Poitevin, Faucher, 6 Poland     map, 539 Polish Succession, War of the (1733-1735), 221-223, 252 Polish throne, 221-223 Political conservatism, 784 Political economy, 601 Political parties, U.S., 778-781, 887, 909    map, 779 Political persuasion and emotion, 599 Political philosophy, 161, 328, 407, 439, 600 Political progress and conservatism, 784 Political right, 439 Political State of Great Britain, The (journal), 236 Politics     colonial America, 493     and history, 689     in literature, 288 Pollock, Thomas, 83 Polly (Gay), 193 Poltava, Battle of (1709), 10, 72-74, 77, 222 Polydactyly, 353 Polynomials, 686-688 Pombal, marquês de, 343, 386, 422, 517 Pombaline building style, 387 Pomeroy, Seth, 594 Pompadour, Madame de, 355, 436, 691 Pompadour, marquise de     See Pompadour, Madame de Pompeii, Italy, 206, 325-328, 432 Pond, Peter, 842 Pondicherry, India, 311 Ponte, Lorenzo da, 690 Pontiac (c    1720-1769), 373, 455, 609 Pontiac (fl    1776), 430 Pontiac’s Resistance (1763-1766), 455-457, 463, 555, 609 Poor Law Amendment Act (1834), 872 Poor laws, England, 870-872 Pope, Alexander, 184, 191, 419 Population theory, 901-903 Porter, James, 815 Portolá, Gaspar de, 519 Portugal     colonization of East Africa, 4-5     slave trade, 1     trade with Japan, 153 Portuguese South America, 343-345 Potawatomis, 123, 455, 556, 794 Pound, James, 321 Poverty and government, 591-593, 801-803, 870-872     See also Peasantry    Social reform Power looms, 640, 711-714, 787 Prado, El     See El Prado Museum Pragmatic Sanction, 252, 277, 336, 481 Preaching, 260     and African American slaves, 546     See also Edwards, Jonathan    Wesley, John    Whitefield, George Preformation theories (embryology), 352 Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot (Alembert), 162 Prerevolutionary America, 476-479, 493-495, 531-533, 550-553 Prerevolutionary France, 621 Presbyterianism, 725, 781     colonial America, 260     Ireland, 929     Scotland, 59 Prescriptive grammar, 866     See also Descriptive grammar    Grammar Preservation     archaeological, 140     cultural, 328 Presidency, U.S., 758-761 Preston, Thomas, 531 Pretender, Old     See James Edward Pretender, Young     See Charles Edward Pretenders to the throne, 24, 61-63 Price, Richard, 444 Priestley, Joseph, 168, 381, 488, 564-565, 642, 661, 865, 916, 927 Prigg v    Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1842), 838 Prime meridian, 115, 174, 358 Prime ministers (England), 155-158 Princeton University, 262 Principes de la philosophie de l’histoire (Michelet), 180 Principia     See Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, The Principle of sufficient reason, 658 Pringle, First Baronet     See Pringle, Sir John Pringle, Sir John, 366 Printing     See Lithography Printing press     for Arabic language, 27-29     Ottoman Empire, 136 Pritchard, Thomas Farnolls, 631 Privateers, 403, 606, 897 Prix de Rome, 729 Probability theory, 214, 444-446 “Proceedings of a Political Club”    (anonymous), 237 Proclamation of 1763, 376, 455, 463, 465-466, 556, 609, 615, 798     map, 464 Progress     concept of, 162, 689 Prokopovich, Feofan, 171 Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics (Kant), 255 Protestant-Catholic conflicts, 32-35, 61, 95, 653-655 Protestant Episcopal Church, 770 Protestant succession, 22-24 Protestantism, 725, 781     colonial America, 261     England, 22     France, 32     Ireland, 815-817     missionary movement, 826-828     Switzerland, 95-97 Proto-Indo-European languages, 727-729 Proust, Joseph-Louis, 846 Proust-Berthollet debate, 848 Provincial Congress     Massachusetts, 582     New Jersey, 612     Pennsylvania, 623 Provoost, Samuel, 770 Prussia     map, 11, 391, 539 Prussian-Austrian conflicts, 278 Prussian-French conflicts, 820, 823-825 Prussian throne, 274-276 Psychological realism, 544 Psychology and law, 329 Ptolemy, 368 Ptolemy V Ephiphanes, 922 Public consumption of art, 242 Puddling process, 678, 786 Pugachev, Yemelyan Ivanovich, 548 Pugachev’s Revolt (1773-1774), 548-550 Pugachov, Yemelyan Ivanovich     See Pugachev, Yemelyan Ivanovich Puger, Pangéran, 48 Puppet theater, 40-42 Purandar, Treaty of (1776), 572 Puritanism, 142, 261, 724, 781 Putnam, Israel, 594, 618 Putnam, Rufus, 714 Pyramids, Battle of the (1798), 905 Pyrrhon, 158 Q3j3r Dynasty, 177 Qandah3r, Afghanistan, 69 Qianlong, 346, 831 Qing Dynasty, 189, 833 Qing Gaozong     See Qianlong Quakers, 34, 466     and American Indians, 915     antislavery stance, 578, 624, 818     and voting rights, 612 Quang Trung     See Nguyen Hue Quarantines, 148 Quartering Act (1765), 494, 615 Quebec, 30     map, 559 Quebec, Battle of (1759), 375 Quebec, Battle of (1775), 588 Quebec Act (1774), 558-561, 568, 799     map, 559 Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713), 19, 29-31 Queen Street Theater, Charleston, South Carolina, 482 Queen’s Ware, 414 Quesnay, François, 601 Quesnel, Pasquier, 109 Quetzalcóatl, 718 Qur$3n, 27 Radcliffe, William, 711 Raghoba     See Raghunath R3o Raghunath R3o, 571 Raimondi, Giambattista, 27 Rákóczi, Ferenc II, 35 Rama I, 522 Rambler (Johnson), 349-351 Ramsay, Allan, 282 Randolph, Edmund, 742 Randolph, Peyton, 568 Rangaku (Dutch studies), 154 Rapa Nui Island, 165 Rapanui, 165 Raphelengius, Franciscus, 27 Rapports (chemical relationships), 134 Rastatt and Baden, Treaties of (1714), 21, 76, 106 Rastrelli, Francesco, 889 Rationalism, 254, 339, 371, 658, 688     See also Reason Ray, John, 228 Rayneval, Joseph Mathias Gérard de, 680 Read, George, 837 Realism     See Art    Literature    Naive realism Reality and philosophy, 659 Reason     and emotion, 544, 688     and German philosophy, 658     and passion, 407     See also Rationalism Réaumur, René-Antoine Ferchault de, 112, 163, 488 Recherches sur les lois de l’affinité (Berthollet), 135 Red Jacket, 914 Reden an die deutsche Nation     See Addresses to the German Nation Redi, Francesco, 487 Reference Points on the International Temperature Scale, Fixed (table), 285 Reference works, 472 Reflections on the Revolution in France (Burke), 784, 801, 809 Réflexions morales (Quesnal), 109, 187 Reform novels, 289 Regio Ducal Teatro (Milan, Italy), 637 Regulator movements, 501-503 Reid, Thomas, 254 Reign of Terror (France), 821, 825, 841, 855-857 Reinagle, Alexander, 482 Reinhold, Karl Leonhard, 812 Relation abrégée d’un voyage fait dans l’intérieur de l’Amérique Méridionale     See Succinct Abridgment of a Voyage Made Within the Inland Parts of South-America, A Relief printing, 898 Religion     American Indians, 914-916     and conservatism, 785     criticism of, 159, 471-474, 688     and human reproduction, 352     study of, 529 Religious conformity, 85-88 Religious conversion of indigenous peoples, 521 Religious freedom     and the Enlightenment, 158     French Canada, 559     Prussia, 850     Switzerland, 95-97     United States, 724-726     See also Catholic emancipation    Catholic rights    First Amendment (U.S. Constitution)    Religious revivalism    Religious tolerance    Virginia Statute of Religious Liberty Religious hypocrisy, 473 Religious revivalism, 260-263, 510, 545, 781-783 Religious superstition, 421 Religious tolerance, 262, 276 Religious violence, 473 Renaissance, La (Zorin), 604 Renaud, Louis-Sauveur     See Villeneuve, marquis de Rennie, John, 753 Repartos system, 651 Repeating circle (astronomy), 359 Report on a National Bank (Hamilton), 789 Report on Manufacturers (Hamilton), 789 Report on Public Credit (Hamilton), 789-791 Repository of Arts, London, 900 Representative government, 440 Reproduction, human, 352 Republican Party, 774, 778, 862, 909     and voting rights, 614 Republicanism, 801     and the Enlightenment, 158 Repulsion and attraction, laws of, 133 Resina-Ercolano, Italy, 326 Resinous electricity, 217 Respiration, 169, 643 Révellion Riots (1789), 767 Revenue Act     See Townshend Revenue Act Revere, Paul, 532, 552, 581 Reveries of the Solitary Walker, The (Rousseau), 440 Revett, Nicholas, 432 Revolutionaries     Edmund Burke, 785 Revolutionary Tribunal (France), 776, 855 Revolutionary War (1775-1781)     map, 586     timeline, 586 Revolutionary War, American     See American Revolution Revolutionary wars, French, 767-769, 820-823     See also French Revolution Reynolds, John, 210 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 515 Rharhabe, 645 Ricafort, Mariano, 295 Ricci, Lorenzo, 422 Rich, John, 191, 211 Richardson, Samuel, 271, 287, 349 Rigaud, André, 803 Right Excellent Nanny of the Maroons     See Nanny Rights, Bill of (primary source), 807 Rights of Man (Paine), 801-803, 813 Rimniksky, Count     See Suvorov, Aleksandr Vasilyevich Rinaldi, Antonio, 250 Rinaldi, Giulia, 249-250 Rio, Antonio del, 716 Riot Act (1715), 87 Riot Act (1780), 654 Rites controversy (1785), 703-705 Ritter, Carl, 368, 370 Rivoli, Battle of (1797), 885 Robbers, The (Schiller), 543 Roberts, Richard, 712 Robespierre, 776, 834, 855 Robinet, Pierre, 88 Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 141-144, 271 Robison, John, 474 Roca, Julio Argentino, 595 Rochambeau, comte de, 585, 606, 667 Rochejaquelein, Henri de la, 839, 841 Rockingham, second marquess of, 476, 680 Rocky Mountains, 845 Rococo, 327, 434, 729     Ottoman architecture, 136 Rodney, George, 647, 656, 668 Roebuck, John, 306, 474 Roggeveen, Jacob, 165 Rohan, Charles de     See Soubise, prince de Rohan-Chabot, Guy Auguste de, 184 Rolla, Alessandro, 867 Rolling mills, 678, 786-788 Romain, Pierre, 708 Roman antiquities, 433 Roman Catholicism     See Catholic Church Roman Inquisition, 109 Romanov Dynasty, 171, 189 Romanticism     art, 731     literature, 542     music, 867-870     and reason, 688     Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s influence, 671     and Western cultural tastes, 207 Rømer, Ole, 112, 285, 321 Romilly, Jean de, 621 Ronin (masterless samurai), 16-18 Ronsse, Boudewijn, 366 Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 595 Roseberg, Christian, 604 Rosetta stone, 905, 921-923 Rossbach, Battle of (1757), 389, 400-403 Rossini, Gioacchino, 690, 692 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 158, 354, 438, 471, 485, 542, 621, 670, 801, 812, 901 Royal Academy of Arts, England, 206, 515-517 Royal Academy of History, Spain, 89 Royal Academy of Language, Spain, 107 Royal Academy of Music, London, 193 Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, France, 241 Royal Academy, Spain, 89 Royal and Catholic Army (France), 841 Royal Astronomical Society, London, 733 Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, 916 Royal Library of Spain, 88-90 Royal Museum of Painting and Sculpture, Madrid     See El Prado Museum Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, 45, 174, 358 Royal Society for Arts, London, 206 Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce (England), 516 Royal Society of Edinburgh     See Philosophical Society of Edinburgh Royal Society of Göttingen, Germany, 359 Royal Society, England, 46, 56, 174, 205, 217, 307, 332, 365 Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 113, 286 Rubber, 232 Rudiments of English Grammar, The (Priestley), 866 Ruffin, Edmund, 828 Ruins     art, 207     England, 138     Mexico, 716     Pompeii, 326     See also Archaeology    Avebury    Pompeii    Stonehenge Rush, Benjamin, 579, 734 Russell, John     See Bedford, fourth duke of Russell, Thomas, 815 Russia     map, 11, 267, 539 Russian-Austrian relations, 238-241 Russian-Austrian War (1736-1739), 238-241, 266-268 Russian Empire, 10-13, 72-74, 548-550 Russian exploration     of Alaska, 791     Spanish opposition to, 520 Russian-French relations, 748 Russian Orthodox Church, 37, 171, 548 Russian-Ottoman conflicts, 77-79, 238-241 Russian-Ottoman Wars (1768-1792), 506-509 Russian-Spanish conflicts, 520 Russian-Spanish relations, 791 Russian-Swedish conflicts, 10-13, 72-74 Russian-Swedish Wars (1788-1809), 748-750 Russian-Turkish War (1768-1774), 562 Russo-Turkish Wars (1768-1792), 506-509 Rutgers University, 262 Rutherford, Daniel, 380 Rutledge, Edward, 568, 594 Rutledge, John, 568, 742 Ryland, John, 827 Rymnikskii, Count     See Suvorov, Aleksandr Vasilyevich Ryswick, Treaty of (1697), 29, 120, 480, 803 Sacheverell, Henry, 85 Sachsen-Hildburghausen, Prince von, 400 Sackville, Charles, 205 Sadanobu, Matsudaira, 722 :afavid Empire, 69-71, 176-178 Saif I ibn Sulz3n, 4 Saif II ibn Sulz3n, 341 St. Augustine, Florida, 30 St. Clair, Arthur, 627, 695, 737, 794 Saint-Cyran     See Duvergier, Jean St. George’s Methodist Episcopal Church (Pennsylvania), 735 St. Helen’s Canal, 417 St. John, Baron     See Bolingbroke, first Viscount St. Lawrence River, Canada, 101, 376 St. Leger, Barry, 626 Saint-Ovide     See Monbeton de Brouillan, Joseph de St. Petersburg, Russia, 11, 37-39, 72, 892 St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Russia, 171-173, 297 St. Petersburg Imperial Ballet School, Russia, 249-251 Salatiga, Treaty of (1757), 49 Salbai, Treaty of (1783), 572 Salieri, Antonio, 637 Salisbury experiment, 366 Salone Margherita (Milan, Italy), 637 Samurai, 16-18, 40 San Diego mission, California, 520 San Francisco mission, California, 520 San Ildefonso, Treaty of (1777), 344 San Ildefonso, Treaty of (1796), 877 San Lorenzo, Treaty of     See Pinckney’s Treaty Sanskrit, 727 Sanson, Charles-Henri, 775 Saratoga, Battles of (1777), 589, 606, 629-631 Sardinia, 820 Sargent, Winthrop, 714 Satire, 181-184, 287 Saturn (planet), 733 Saussure, Nicholas de, 644 Savannah, Georgia, 209, 589 Savannah Church, Georgia, 546 Savannah Georgia First Colored Church     See Savannah Church Savenay, Battle of (1793), 821, 841 Savery, Thomas, 56 Savoie-Carignan, François-Eugène de     See Eugene of Savoy Sawbridge, Catherine     See Macaulay, Catherine Saxe, comte de, 279 Saxony, Maurice of     See Saxe, comte de Scala, La     See La Scala Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 564 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, 658, 813 Schiller, Friedrich, 542 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 898 Schism Act (1714), 87 Schmidt, Tobias, 775 Schuyler, Philip, 594, 610, 626, 629 Schwarzenberg Palace, Vienna, 125 Science     electricity, 198, 216, 362     experimental, 42-45     experimentation on humans, 198     of ideas, 372 Scientific Revolution, 42, 171 Scienza nuova     See New Science, The Scioto Company, 715 Scorbutus (scurvy), 366 Scotland     map, 62     Old Pretender, 61     union with England, 58-61 Scotland (c    1745-1746)     map, 301 Scots Mines Company, 282 Scott, Thomas, 826-827 Scriblerus Club, 191 Sculpture, Mayan, 716 Scurvy, 195, 366-368, 505 Scutchers, 787 Sea clocks, 115 Seabury, Samuel, 770 Seckendorff, Friedrich Heinrich von, 274 Seckendorff, Reichsgraf von, 238 Second Northern War     See Great Northern War Second Partition Treaty (1700), 19 Secondat, Charles-Louis de     See Montesquieu Secularism     and astronomy, 880     education, 701-703     and the Enlightenment, 158, 688     and Free African Society, 735     and French government, 423     and the Inquisition, 518 Securities, government, 790 Security Act (1739), 264 Sedgwick, Theodore, 837 Sedition Act (1798), 235, 908-911 Seed drill, 7-10 Semira (Angiolini), 250 Senebier, Jean, 642 Senecas, 123, 455, 463, 609, 696, 914 Senefelder, Alois, 898 Sensationalism, 371-373, 407 Seppuku (suicide), 40 September Massacres (1792), 824 Serious Thought, A (Paine), 598 Serra, Junípero, 519 Servetto, Giovanni, 868 Settlement, Act of (1701), 22-24 Seven Years’    War (1756-1763), 276, 374, 379, 389-392, 400, 412, 420, 424, 430, 449-451, 850    map, 391     See also French and Indian War Severn River, England, 64, 631 Seville, Treaty of (1729, 1732), 157, 200-202 Sewamono (domestic play), 41 Seydlitz, Friedrich Wilhelm von, 400 Sèze, Romain de, 834 Shaftesbury, earl of, 210 Sh3h Rukh, 176 Shakers, 34 Shakespeare, William, 542 Sharia (Islamic law), 137 Sharp, Abraham, 173 Sharp, Granville, 827 Sharpe, John, 92 Shawnees, 455, 468, 555, 794, 858 Shelburne, second earl of, 455, 463, 564, 680 Shelikov, Grigori Ivanovich, 194 Shepherd, Edward, 211 Sherman, Roger, 568, 616, 741, 806, 837 Shestakov, Afanasy, 195 Shia Islam, 70, 341     See also Sunni Islam Shia-Sunni conflicts, 70 Shih-tsung     See Yongzheng Shinjn (love suicide), 41 Shipwrecks, 358 Shirley, William, 378, 383 Shizong     See Yongzheng Short Introduction to English Grammar, A (Lowth), 865 Shovel, Cloudsley, 358 Shusse Kagekiyo (Chikamatsu), 40 Siamese-Vietnamese War (1769-1778), 522-525     map, 523 Siberia, 189, 194 Siddons, Sarah, 211 Sidney, Sir Philip, 314 Siècle des lumières (century of lights), 162 Siege of _______     See specific name Sieyès, Abbé     See Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph, 761, 764, 924 Silbermann, Gottfried, 66 Silesian Wars (1740-1745), 276, 278-282 Silla de Caracas, Venezuela, 918 Simón, Fray, 98 Sin     See Taksin Sindt, Ivan, 194, 196 Sintering, 893 Sioux, 123 Sir3j al-Dawl3, 397 Six Nations, 466 Slater, Samuel, 796 Slave codes, 93, 224, 265 Slave revolts     Haiti, 803-806     Jamaica, 202-205, 872-875     New York City, 92-95     South Carolina, 263-265     West Indies, 224-226, 430-432 Slave trade     abolition of, 818     Africa, 5     Atlantic, 1-3     Denmark’s abolition of, 817-819     and disease, 1     licensing of, 1, 21, 31, 150, 201, 257 Slave Trade, Society for the Abolition of the     See Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade Slavery     of Africans, 92, 210, 263, 578, 623, 694, 803     Caribbean, 656     and Christianity, 1, 782     colonial America, 578-581     cotton gin, 830     Great Awakening, 262     Massachusetts, 624     New Hampshire, 624     New Jersey, 624     New York, 624     Northwest Territory, 739     Pennsylvania, 623     Rhode Island, 624     sugar industry, 316     United States, 737, 739-740     and U.S    Constitution, 837     and Treaty of Utrecht, 106     Vermont, 623 Slaves     as commodities, 2     Nova Scotia, 677     and religion, 545 Slaves, An Act for Preventing the Conspiracy of     See Act for Preventing the Conspiracy of Slaves Slavophilism     See Nationalism Smallpox     colonial America, 263     vaccination, 881-883     as weapon, 456 Smeaton, John, 56, 64 Smellie, William, 338 Smith, Adam, 145, 601, 902 Smith, Francis, 581 Smith, William, 234 Smollett, Tobias, 271 Soap manufacture, 757 Social Contract, The (Rousseau), 438-441 Social contract theory, 439, 599 Social criticism, 159, 473, 543 Social law-universal law, 329 Social progress and conservatism, 785 Social reform     Habsburg Empire, 576-578     and reading, 284     See also Peasantry    Poverty and government    Social criticism Social responsibility, 802 Société    d’Arcueil (France), 879 Society, Freedom of the Press in a Free (primary source), 234 Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery (United States), 579, 625 Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade (England), 2 Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (England), 826 Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage (United States), 578 Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights (England), 454 Society of Antiquaries (England), 139, 205, 923 Society of Artists     See Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce (England) Society of Dilettanti (England), 205-207, 433, 515 Society of Free People of Color (United States), 736 Society of Friends     See Quakers Society of Jesus     See Jesuits Society of United Irishmen, 815, 930 Sociology     See Condorcet, marquis de    Smith, Adam    Vico, Giambattista Socrates, 730 Soda production, 756-758 Sodium carbonate, 756-758 Solar heating of Earth, 226 Solar system, 878-880 Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes (Woolman), 580 Sonate da cimbalo di piano, e forte . . . (Giustini), 68 Sonezaki shinjn     See Love Suicides at Sonezaki, The Sonnenfels, Joseph von, 576 Sonora, marqués de la     See Gálvez, José    de Sons of Liberty, 478, 494, 532 Sophia (electress of Hanover), 22 Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, 274 Sfrinshi     See Chikamatsu Monzaemon Sorrows of Young Werther, The (Goethe), 543 Soto, Hernando de, 424 Soubise, prince de, 400 South America, 150     map, 596, xliii South Carolina     Cherokees, 424     French-Spanish attack, 30     Tuscaroras, 84 South Pacific and French colonialism, 485 South Sea Bubble, 150-153, 156 South Sea Company, 150 Southern states (United States), 830 Southwark Theatre, Pennsylvania, 482-484 Sovereignty     Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 439     United States, 680, 682-683 Space and time, 659 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 487 Spanberg, Martin, 194 Spanish Academy, Madrid, 107-109 Spanish-Algerine War (1775), 573-575 Spanish-American Indian relations, 650-653 Spanish-American relations, 636, 680 Spanish-British conflicts, 257-259, 647-650 Spanish-British relations, 29, 792 Spanish Empire     control over, 29     decline of, 296     slave trade, 1 Spanish Florida, 263, 875 Spanish Golden Age, 89 Spanish-Moroccan conflicts, 574 Spanish Netherlands, 20, 74, 106, 121, 823 Spanish-Russian conflicts, 520 Spanish South America, 343-345, 595-598 Spanish succession, 19-22 Spanish Succession, War of the (1701-1714), 19-22, 29-31, 35, 50-53, 74-77, 103, 120, 150, 200, 222, 411    map, 20 Spanish throne, 411-413 Specimens of Polyautography (André, P.), 899 Spectator, The (Addison and Steele), 80-82, 349 Spectra, 44 Speculation     economic, 145, 151     land, 244, 556, 665, 714, 739 Spencer, Joseph, 594 Spener, Philipp Jacob, 826 Spermist-ovist debate (embryology), 352 Spinning jennies, 469-471, 640, 787, 863 Spinning mills, 796-798 Spinning mules, 640-642, 863 Spinning technology, 640-642, 711, 786, 796-798, 863-865 Spinoza, Baruch, 159 Spirit of the Laws, The (Montesquieu), 161, 328-331 Spontaneous generation, 487-490 Springfield African Church (Georgia), 546 Squillace, Leopoldo di Gregorio, 411 Staël, Madame de, 328 Stahl, Georg Ernst, 168, 565 Stamp Act (1712), 90-92, 476-479 Stamp Act (1765), 91, 532, 551, 615 Stamp Act Congress, 478 Stamp Act Crisis (1765-1766), 476-479, 493 Stanetti, Giovanni, 127 Stanhope, Philip Dormer     See Chesterfield, Lord Stanisuaw I, 10, 221, 251, 480 Stanisuaw II August Poniatowski, 538 Star catalogs, 45, 54, 173-176, 321 Starlight, aberration of, 321 State formation (United States), 714-716, 737, 739-740 State universities (United States), 701-703 States’    rights, 746, 778, 910 Statistics, 215     biology, 353 Staunton, Sir George Leonard, 831 Steam engines, 56-58, 474-476, 786, 826     iron production, 678     textile industry, 640, 711-714, 786-788, 863-865 Steam-powered loom, 640, 711-714 Steam-powered vehicles, 525-527 Stearns, Shubal, 260 Steel production, 163-164 Steele, Richard, 80 Steller, Georg Wilhelm, 194-195 Sterns, Shubal, 260 Stillingfleet, Edward, 25 Stirling, James, 282 Stirling, Michael, 754 Stirling’s formula, 215 Stocks, 150, 152, 789 Stoddard, Solomon, 260 Stoddart, Captain, 202 Stofflet, Jean-Nicholas, 841 Stoics, 158 Stone temples, 138-141 Stonehenge, 138-141 Stonehenge (Stukeley), 140 Stono Rebellion (1739), 263-265 Strabo, 368 Strand art exhibition (England), 516 Stratigraphy, 706 Strong, Caleb, 772 Strutt, Jedediah, 490, 796 Stuart, Athenian, 432 Stuart, James     See Stuart, Athenian Stuart, James Francis Edward     See James Edward Stuart, John     See Bute, third earl of Stuart Dynasty, 22, 61-63, 128-131 Stukeley, William, 138 Sturm und Drang, 436, 542-545 Suard, Jean-Baptiste-Antoine, 621 Submarines, 618-620 Succession, Act of     See Hanoverian succession Succinct Abridgment of a Voyage Made Within the Inland Parts of South-America, A (La Condamine), 232 Suffolk Resolves, 568 Suffrage, 612-615     See also Voting rights Sugar Act (1764), 476, 532, 615 Sugar extraction, 316-318 Sugar plantations     Brazil, 1     West Indies, 430, 656, 817 Sugimori Nobumori     See Chikamatsu Monzaemon Suicide in Japanese society, 16-18, 40 Süleyman Pala, 308 Sulfuric acid, 306-308 Sullivan, John, 594, 628, 914 Sulz3n bin Saif, 4 Sunday schools, 782 Sunni Islam, 70     See also Shia Islam Supreme Court, U.S., 702 “Sur le principe de la gravitation universelle, et sur les inégalites séculaires des planètes qui en dépendent”    (Laplace), 878 Surabaya, Indonesia, 48 Surapati, 48 Surgions Mate, The (Woodall), 366 Surveying, land, 918 Susquehannocks, 467 Sutcliff, John, 827 Suvorov, Aleksandr Vasilyevich, 562 Svarez, Carl Gottlieb, 849 Sweden     map, 11 Swedish Empire, 10-13 Swedish-French relations, 748 Swedish-Russian conflicts, 10-13, 72-74, 748-750 Swieten, Gottfried van, 290 Swift, Jonathan, 25, 181, 184, 191, 290 Symmes, John Cleves, 714 Symmes Purchase, 715 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, A (Halley), 54 Syria, 308 System of Nature, The (Holbach), 528-530 System of the World, The (Laplace), 878-880 Systema naturae     See General System of Nature, A Système de la nature (Maupertuis), 353 “Table des différens rapports observés en chymie entre différentes substances” (Geoffroy), 134 Table of Reactivities (Geoffroy), 133-135 Tabula rasa, 172, 284, 688 Tabulae motuum solis et lunae novae et correctae (Mayer), 359 Tacky, 430 Tacky’s Rebellion (1760), 204, 430 Tahiti, 486     missionary activity, 827 Zahm3sap Qolt Khan     See N3dir Sh3h Zahm3sp II, 176 Takeda Izumo, 40 Takemoto Gidayn, 40 Taksin, 522 Tallard, comte de, 50 Talleyrand, 895, 903, 924 Tallien, Jean-Lambert, 855 Tamblot Uprising (1621), 295 Tandy, James Napper, 906 Tanucci, Bernardo, 446 Tatars, 77, 239, 507 Tatler, The (Addison and Steele), 80, 349 Tax collection (France), 146 Tax system (United States), 790 Taxation     colonial America, 379, 476, 501, 532, 550-553     England, 90-92     France, 32     Hungary, 35     United States, 778, 789, 852-854, 896 Taxonomy, 228-231 Tay Son Rebellion (1771), 524, 536 Taylor, John, 837 Taylor, Nathaniel William, 781 Tea Act (1773), 551 Teatro della Cannobiana, Milan, 638 Teatro Regio Ducale (Milan, Italy), 637 Tecumseh, 456, 794 Telescopes, 43, 732-734 Telford, Thomas, 632 Temperature Scale, Fixed Reference Points on the International (table), 285 Temperature scales, 247     Celsius, 284-287     Fahrenheit, 112-114 Templeton, Hugh, 864 10 Downing Street, London, 157 Tenmei Famine, 722-724 Tennant, Smithson, 893 Tennent, Gilbert, 260 Tennent, William, 260 Tennis Court, Oath of the (1789), 764-766 Tenochtitlán, 98 Tenskwatawa, 914 Tentamen theoriae electricitatis et magnetismi     See Essay on the Theory of Electricity and Magnetism Tercier, Jean-Pierre, 406 Terra Australis Incognita, 165, 503 Territory distribution     colonial America, 463, 465-466     South America, 343-345     United States, 714-716, 737, 739-740 Territory expansion     Quebec, Canada, 558-561     Spain in South America, 595-598 Terrorism and political assassination, 856 Test Act (1673), 22, 85 Testament (Meslier), 160 Textile industry, 219, 490-492, 640-642, 711-714, 786-788, 796-798, 863-865 Textile mills, 753, 786-788, 863 Thayendanegea     See Brant, Joseph Theater     England, 458     Milan, 637-639     Philadelphia, 483     and religious conservatives, 482 Theatrum machinarum (Cugnot), 525 Theodicy (Leibniz), 420 Theophrastus, 228 Theory of Moral Sentiments, The (Smith, A.), 601 “Theory of the Earth”    (Hutton), 706 Thermidorians, 856 Thermometers, 112-114, 247     Celsius, 284-287     mercury, 112-114     Ole Rømer, 113 Thing-in-itself (Kant), 659 “Third Anniversary Discourse”    (Jones), 727 Third Estate (France), 761, 764-767     See also National Assembly Thirteen Colonies, 208, 374, 585, 676 Thomas, John, 594 Thomson, William     See Kelvin, Baron Thong Duang     See Rama I Threshing, 753-755 Tibet     map, 347 Tibetan-Chinese conflicts, 346-348 Tidal theory, 269-271 Tides and astronomy, 322 Tilsit, Treaty of (1807), 748 Time and navigation, 114, 174 Time and space, 659 Tintern Abbey     See “Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey” Tipu Sultan, 311, 495 Tissue, human, 395 Titian, 700 Toggenburg War     See Villmergen War, Second. Tokugawa Ieharu, 722 Tokugawa Iemitsu, 16 Tokugawa Ienari, 722 Tokugawa shogunate, 16-18, 153 Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, 16 Tokugawa Yoshimune, 153 Toledo, Francisco de, 650 Toleration, Edict of (1692), 832 Toleration, Edict of (1781), 577 Toleration Act (1689), 85 Tom Jones (Fielding), 289 Tomochichi, 208 Tone, Wolfe, 815, 906, 929 Torcy, marquis de     See Colbert, Jean-Baptiste Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 343 Torricelli, Evangelista, 286 Tory Party, 80, 155     and Anglican Church, 85     and Protestant Dissenters, 85     Whig conflicts, 182     See also Whig Party Torzhestvo muz (Dmitriyev, Vertovsky, and Alyabyev), 605 Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 228 Toussaint Bréda, François Dominique     See Toussaint Louverture Toussaint Louverture, 803 Townshend, Charles, 155, 493 Townshend Crisis (1767-1770), 493-495 Townshend Revenue Act (1767), 493, 532, 551, 615 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 153 Tracy, Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de, 371 Trade     banking, 146     Dutch East Indies, 48     fur, 123, 194, 465, 609, 792, 845     monopolies, 150     Philippines, 296     regulation, 379     Russia with China, 189-191     sugar, 656     United States with Hawaii, 675     Western Europe with China, 832     Western Europe with India, 311     See also Slave trade Trade winds, 226 Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 748 Tragedy in literature, 544 Traité    de l’équilibre et du movement des fluides (Alembert), 293 Traité    de mécanique céleste     See Treatise upon Analytical Mechanics, A Traité    des sensations     See Condillac’s Treatise on the Sensations Traité    des systèmes     See Treatise on Systems, A Traité    du dynamique (Alembert), 293 Traité    élémentaire de chimie     See Elements of Chemistry Traités des animaux (Condillac), 340 Transcendental philosophy, 658-661 Transportation     balloons, 708-711     industrial, 417     U.S    agriculture, 852 Trapeznikov, Nikifor, 194 Treaties     American Indians, 695-698, 857-860     European, 103-107, 120-122, 200-202, 251-253, 266-268, 336-338, 343-345, 449-451     France and United States, 633-636     North America, 449-451, 680, 682-683, 860-863, 875-877     Russia and China, 189-191     Russia and Ottoman Empire, 562-564     United States and Britain, 680, 682-683     United States and Europe, 860-863     United States and Spain, 875-877 Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, A (Berkeley), 254 Treatise of Fluxions, A (Maclaurin), 270, 293 Treatise of Human Nature, A (Hume), 254-256 Treatise of the Scurvy, A (Lind), 366 Treatise on Systems, A (Condillac), 371 Treatise upon Analytical Mechanics, A (Laplace), 880 Treaty of _______     See specific name Trelawney Town, Jamaica, 431, 872 Trémoille, Marie-Anne de la     See Ursins, princess des Trevithick, Richard, 632 Trial, The (first iron boat), 632 Trigonometric functions, 687 Triple Alliance, 508 Tronchet, François Denis, 834 Trotter, Thomas, 366 Trudaine de la Sablière, Charles-Michel, 729 Trudaine de Montigny, Charles-Louis, 729 Truetlen, John, 210 Trumbull, Jonathan, 618 Truth as legal defense, 235 Tryon, William, 501 Tseren-van, 189 Tshaka, 645 Tsunamis, 386 Tuffley, Mary, 141 Tulip Age, 28, 79, 136-138 Tull, Jethro, 7 Tupac Amaru II, 650 Tupac Katari, 650 Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques, 355, 591, 601 Turreau de Garambouville, Louis-Marie, 839 Turtle (submarine), 619 Tuscarora War (1711-1713), 83-85 Tuscaroras, 83-85, 610, 696 Tushmal Kartm     See Kartm Kh3n Zand Twelver Shiism, 70 Twenty-Sixth Amendment (U.S    Constitution), 617 Tyler, Royall, 483 Typewriters, 117-120 Tzeltal Revolt (1712), 98-100 Über Denk und Drukfreiheit     See On Freedom of the Press and of Thought Über die neuere deutsche Literatur (Herder), 543 Uji Kaga-no-jf, 40 Ukiyo     See Floating World District Ukraine, 72 Ulloa, Antonio de, 383, 893 Ulrich, Karl Peter     See Peter III Ultimo giorno di Pompei, L’ (Pacini), 328 Undetermined coefficients principle, 686 Uniformitarianism, 706-708 Unigenitus (Clement XI), 109-112, 187 Union, Act of (1706-1707), 58-61 Union, Act of (1800), 907, 929-931 Union, Treaty of     See Union, Act of (1706-1707) Unitarian Church, 261 United Irish societies, 906 United Kingdom, formation of, 929-931 United States     maps, 586, 681, 738, 779 Universal Etymological English Dictionary, An (Bailey), 314 Universal law-social law, 329 Uranus, 733 Urquiza, Justo José    de, 595 Ursins, princess des, 120 Urusov, Peter, 604 U.S    Constitution     See Constitution, U.S. Ussieux, Louis d’, 621 Uti possidetis (territory claims), 344 Utilitarian ethics, 407 Utrecht, Treaty of (1713), 21, 31, 52, 76, 100, 120, 150, 200, 223, 274, 337, 383, 648 Vaccination, 881-883 Vaccination Act (1840), 883 Vacuum, nature’s abhorence of, 331 Valberkh, Ivan Ivanovich, 249-250 Vallen de la Motte, Jean- Baptiste-Michel, 889 Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, 589 Valmy, Battle of (1792), 820, 823-825 Vancouver, George, 674, 791 Van’t Hoff, Jacobus Henricus, 331 Varenius, Bernardus, 368 Variolae (smallpox), 882 Vaudreuil, marquis de, 30, 122 Vedanta, 728 Vehicles, 525-527 Velázaquez, Diego, 700 Velikaya, Yekaterina     See Catherine the Great Vendée, Wars of the (1793), 839-842 Venn, John, 826 Venus, 321 Venus physique     See Earthly Venus, The Verderbte Welt (the decayed world), 543 Vereenigde Oostinische Compagnie     See Dutch East India Company Vergennes, Charles Gravier de, 606, 633, 680, 690-691 Vergennes, comte de     See Vergennes, Charles Gravier de Verité    des miracles, La (Montgeron), 188 Vernon, Edward, 257 Vernon, James, 210 Verri, Pietro, 446 Verrier, Étienne, 100 Versailles, Treaty of (1787), 537 Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung     See Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation Verville, Jean-François de, 100 Vetch, Samuel, 29 Vico, Giambattista, 178 Vien, Joseph-Marie, 729 Vienna, Austria, 125 Vienna, Congress of (1815), 785, 886 Vienna, Siege of (1797), 885 Vienna, Treaty of (1725), 121, 200 Vienna, Treaty of (1738), 223, 251-253, 480 Viennese Baroque architecture, 127 Vietnam     map, 523 Vietnamese Civil Wars (1771-1802), 536-538     See also Tay Son Rebellion Vigilantism, colonial America, 501-503 Vignory, count de     See Orry, Philibert Villanueva, Juan de, 698 Villars, Claude-Louis-Hector de     See Villars, duc de Villars, duc de, 32, 50, 74, 120, 222 Villena, marqués de     See Pacheco, Juan Manuel Fernández Villeneuve, marquis de, 239, 266 Villmergen War, Second (1712), 95-97 Vimeur, Jean-Baptiste Donatien de     See Rochambeau, comte de Vindication of the Rights of Man, A (Wollstonecraft), 809 Vindication of the Rights of Woman, A (Wollstonecraft), 809-812 Violence and religion, 473 Violin music, 867-870 Virginia, 594     Cherokees, 425     religious freedom in, 725     Tuscaroras, 83 Virginia Plan, 741 Virginia Resolves, 910 Virginia Statute of Religious Liberty (1786), 724-726 Virtue, political, 329 Viruses and cowpox, 882 Vita di Giambattista Vico scritta da sé    medesimo     See Autobiography of Giambattista Vico, The Vitreous electricity, 217 Vizcaíno, Sebastián, 520 Vladislavich-Raguzinsky, Sava, 189 Volcanoes, 325 Volksgeist (group consciousness), 689 Volland, Sophie, 354 Volta, Alessandro, 395, 410, 927 Voltaic pile, 928 Voltaire, 158, 184, 340, 371, 387, 419, 471, 498, 529, 548, 688, 813 Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet de     See Voltaire Volunteer movement (Ireland), 815 Von Anhalt-Zerbst, Sophie Friederike Auguste     See Catherine the Great Voting rights     free slaves, 624     women, 612 Voyage aux régions équixoxiales du Nouveau Continent (Humboldt), 920 Wade, George, 300 Wadgaon, Convention of (1779), 572 Walker, Hovenden, 29 Walker, Quork, 623 Walker expedition (1711), 30 Walking Purchase (1737), 244-246 Wallis, count von, 238, 266 Walpole, George, 872 Walpole, Sir Robert, 117, 150, 155, 192, 200, 236, 257, 288 Wanderers, The (Ablesimow), 604 War of _______     See specific name Ward, Artemas, 594 Ward, Joshua, 306 Wardley, James, 34 Ware v    Hylton (1796), 774 Warren, Mercy Otis, 483 Warrior Society (Iroquois), 915 Washington, George     American Indians, 610, 914     American Revolution, 585     Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, 598     Continental Congress, 568, 593     First Marquess Cornwallis, 667     Farewell Address, 887-889     French and Indian War, 373     inauguration, 758     Jay’s Treaty, 861     Judiciary Acts, 772     Battle of Oriskany Creek, 626     Pinckney’s Treaty, 875     Battles of Saratoga, 629     slave laws, 837     U.S    Constitution, 741     U.S    political parties, 778     Whiskey Rebellion, 852 Water     boiling point, 285     composition of, 661-663, 720     freezing point, 285     in photosynthesis, 642     regulation of flow, 417 Water frames, 469, 490-492, 640, 711, 787, 863 Waterhouse, Benjamin, 883 Watson, William, 303 Watson-Wentworth, Charles     See Rockingham, second marquess of Watt, James, 56, 381, 474, 632, 661, 706, 786, 828, 863, 916 Wayne, Anthony, 714, 794, 857 Wealth and economies, 145 Wealth of Nations, The (Smith), 601-603, 902 Weaving mills, 219, 711 Webb, Thomas, 509 Weber, Carl Jacob, 325 Webster, Daniel, 701 Webster, Noah, 867 Wedgwood, Josiah, 414 Weld, Theodore Dwight, 781 Wellesley, Richard, 311, 495 Wentworth, Benning, 532 Wentworth, Thomas, 257 Werner, Abraham Gottlob, 706 Wesley, Charles, 512 Wesley, John, 509, 653 West, Benjamin, 516 West Indies     British, 202, 430, 872     Danish, 224     French, 861 West Point, New York, 589 Westernization     China, 831-833     Japan, 153     Ottoman Empire, 334     Russia, 37, 72, 171, 249, 297, 498, 889-892 Westphalia, Treaty of (1648), 120 Westward migration (North America), 465, 556, 714-716, 875 What Is Enlightenment? (Kant), 813 Whatcoat, Richard, 735 Whatley, Thomas, 476 Wheelock, Eleazar, 260 Wheler, Granville, 197 Whig Party, 80, 155     and Protestant Dissenters, 86     Tory conflicts, 182     See also Tory Party Whiskey Rebellion (1794), 778, 852-854 Whitbread, Samuel, 870 White, William, 736, 770 White Eyes, George, 557 White Nile River, Sudan, 514 Whitefield, George, 260, 509 Whitney, Eli, 828 Wignell, Thomas, 482 Wilberforce, William, 1, 817, 826 Wilhelmina of Prussia, 274 Wilkes, John, 237, 451, 553 Wilkins, Charles, 728 Wilkinson, James, 857, 875 Wilkinson, John, 64, 631 William III, 19, 22, 58, 141 William Augustus     See Cumberland, duke of Williams, Roger, 724 Wilson, James, 594, 741, 806, 852 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 325, 432 Wind and navigation, 226 Windmills, 754 Winnebagos, 123 Winslow, John, 383 Winter Palace (St. Petersburg, Russia), 889 Wirrwarr (Klinger), 542 “Witch”    of Agnesi, 319 Wittelsbach, Charles Albert     See Charles VII Woffington, Margaret     See Woffington, Peg Woffington, Peg, 211 Wolcott, Oliver, 696 Wolfe, James, 373, 403 Wolff, Christian, 419, 658 Wollaston, William Hyde, 893 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 784-785, 809 Women     in the Church, 782     civil rights, 809-812     education, 810, 866     and Enlightenment views, 159     laborers, 713     and literature, 273, 543     royal succession, 252, 277, 336, 481     voting rights, 612-615 Wood turning, 6 Woodall, John, 366 Woodville, William, 881 Wool industry, 712 Woolman, John, 578 Wooster, David, 594 Wordsworth, William, 671 Working class     consumerism, 415     education of, 283     and poor laws, 871 Works of Ossian, the Son of Fingal, The (Macpherson), 542 Worlidge, John, 7 Worms, Treaty of (1743), 281 Woulfe, Peter, 534 Wounded Knee, Battle of (1890), 457 Wovoka, 914 Wren, Sir Christopher, 45, 53 Wright, James, 208 Writing     early forms, 921     grammar, 866     mechanization of, 117     nagari letters, 727 Wrought iron, 678-680 Wurmser, Dagobert, 884 Wyndham, Charles     See Egremont, second earl of Xenophobia, 909 Xhosa peoples (South Africa), 645 Xhrouet, Jean-Michel, 621 Xining Valley, 346 XYZ affair, 895-898, 908 Yale College, 781, 828 Yama Craw Church, Georgia, 546 Yamacraws, 209 Yamasees, 30, 84, 208 Yamassee War (1715-1716), 424 Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu, 16 Ya4rubi Dynasty, 4, 341 Yedikuleli Seyyid Abdullah Efendi, 334 Yegen Mehmed Pala, 266 Yelizaveta Petrovna     See Elizabeth Petrovna Yellow Creek Massacre (1774), 557 Yellow fever, 204, 263, 805 Yi Byo©k, John-Baptist, 703 Yi Su©nghun, Peter, 703 Yinzhen     See Yongzheng Yongzheng, 346 Yorktown, Virginia, surrender (1781), 590, 607, 667-670 Young, Thomas, 921 “Young Pretender.”    See Charles Edward Yung-cheng     See Yongzheng Yupanqui (Inca emperor), 650 Z3hir al-4Umar, 308 Zaki Kh3n, 176 Zand Dynasty     See Kartm Kh3n Zand Zanzibar, seizure of (c    1701), 4-5 Zend Dynasty     See Kartm Kh3n Zand Zenger, John Peter, 233 Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew, 826 Zinj el Barr (land of the blacks), 4 Znamensky Theater, Moscow, 604 Zulby, John, 635 Zunghars (Mongol tribe), 346 Zuurveld, South Africa, 645

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