Salem Press

Serial offending is generally defined as the commission of three or more separate but related crimes with "cooling off" periods between the acts. The most widely recognized form of serial crime is serial murder, but serial crimes may also involve rape, burglary, robbery, arson, or other offenses.

Advances in serial crime investigation since the late 1970's have led to the closure of a number of otherwise unsolvable criminal cases. A significant factor in this success has been the use of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC), which provides a profiling program as well as research and development, training, and support services.

The generally accepted theory is that serial offenders are specifically motivated by a variety of psychological urges, which include compulsion, power issues, and sociopathic tendencies. Serial offenders compensate for perceived internal deficiencies by committing crimes, through which they gain a sense of potency, revenge, or other forms of gratification.

The modern approach to serial offenders places them into one of two distinct categories: organized (nonsocial) offenders or disorganized (asocial) offenders. Organized offenders often have above-average intelligence and a tendency toward methodical planning of their crimes. An example is Ted Bundy, who used a fake plaster cast on his arm to fool women into thinking he had an injury so that they would help him with loading groceries into his car. Organized offenders usually maintain a high level of control over their victims and are often knowledgeable in forensic science and investigative techniques.

Disorganized offenders are usually of relatively low intelligence and often act impulsively. Crimes committed by these offenders are often crimes of opportunity rather than the result of planning. These offenders may certainly know of their desire to commit crimes (thus they meet the requirement for the mental element of premeditation), but they do not always have particular targets selected or plans laid out; instead, they act spontaneously or impetuously.

The motives of serial offenders vary greatly, depending on the crimes and the characteristics of the perpetrators. Based on their motives, serial offenders have been classified into four categories: visionary (driven by hallucination or delusions), hedonistic (driven by the desire for personal pleasure), gain-oriented (driven by the desire for material gain), and power- or control-oriented (driven by the desire to gain and exert power over victims).

Forensic Science
Homicide

Forensic Applications: Victim identification; suspect identification; cause of death determination; weapon identification

Definition: Death of a human when caused by the act of another. Homicide includes both civil and criminal definitions, which vary according to the individual acts or intentions of the person acting.

Significance: The ability to identify and classify the nature of the deaths of human beings is an important part of civilized society. Unjustified deaths create social concern and can interfere with a society's growth or prosperity. The work of forensic scientists can help to explain unattended deaths and can aid in efforts to provide legal remedy for deaths where appropriate.

Homicide is the death of a human caused by the act of another human. In the broadest terms, all deaths that are caused by persons other than the decedents are considered homicide, but not all may be criminal homicide. The major distinguishing factor between a criminal homicide and other kinds of homicide is the intent of the person who caused the death. Examples of noncriminal homicide include acts by soldiers during time of war, acts of the state in imposing and enforcing mandates, and deaths that occur within the strict law of excuse or justification.

In the United States, most unattended deaths are classified as homicide until such time as an investigation determines the cause and manner of death. An unattended death is one that occurs outside the treatment or supervision of a physician. In most instances, deaths are categorized into four major types: accidental death, natural death, suicide, and murder.

Elements of Criminal Homicide
The crimes involving homicide require specific elements to be proven through the investigation and prosecution. The first group of crimes includes murder, which is commonly divided into two subcategories: first-degree murder and second-degree murder. First-degree murder (also known as aggravated murder in some jurisdictions) is committed by a person who knowingly causes the death of another person with deliberation and intent. The terms "premeditation" and "deliberation" are often applied in defining the highest level of murder. Premeditation is commonly defined as consideration or planning of an act beforehand. In the case of homicide, the premeditation is the mental element (mens rea) within which the perpetrator contemplates or gives forethought to the acts in question. This does not mean that a perpetrator must have a specific plan ahead of the time; only mere moments of forethought need pass for the mental element to be met. The detail of proof is in the ability to show an intent to cause an act that has a planned result of death.

Second-degree murder occurs when a person knowingly causes the death of another without premeditation but with intent to act. In this subcategory the person commits the crime if he or she knowingly causes the death of another while committing a criminal act or when there is intent to act in a reckless or harmful manner. The major distinctions between first- and second-degree murder are the intent and the deliberation of the person causing the murder to actually cause the death. In second-degree murder the concentration is on the intent to act; the intent to cause the death is absent.

Criminal homicide may include the lesser crime of manslaughter, which is often divided between voluntary and involuntary manslaughter. Voluntary manslaughter arises when an intentional act is done without malice (malevolence) or premeditation and while in the heat of passion or on sudden provocation. Involuntary manslaughter arises from the failure to perform a legal duty expressly required to safeguard human life, from the commission of an unlawful act not amounting to a felony, or from the commission of a lawful act involving a risk of injury or death that is done in an unlawful, reckless, or grossly negligent manner.

Investigation of Homicide
The investigation of death focuses primarily on the cause of death as well as on the underlying acts of the person who caused the death. Whether the matter is one of criminal or civil interest relies heavily on the evidence that proves aggravation or mitigation of the actions. In both instances the use of forensic evidence establishes the cause of death as well as the method or manner.

The methods of determining civil or criminal homicide include four primary areas of emphasis. The first of these is the scene investigation, and this may occur in both civil and criminal cases. The primary focus of the scene investigation is the identification, securing, and initial analysis of evidence. This may include preliminary determination of cause or nature of death as well as surrounding circumstances.

The second area is crime scene pattern analysis, also known as crime scene reconstruction. In this phase the investigator or technician concentrates on the critical analysis of evidence in order to re-create the potential acts that led to the death in question. The nature and cause of the injury leading to death constitute an important part of this phase, as does the relationship or interaction between victim and perpetrator.

The third area is that of the forensic analysis, which may include both laboratory and nontechnical investigative techniques. Through the application of both scientific method and investigative technique, evidence related to the acts or issues in question is analyzed. This may include analysis of evidence from the scene, from a weapon or cause of injury, and from the victim through medical and scientific analysis.

The final area is the legal presentation of proof through evidence and ultimate application to the elements of the crime. In this stage the three investigative and forensic areas come together under the umbrella of law to draw conclusions about the nature and cause of death. In a criminal case the prosecution must prove the physical acts (actus reus) of the crime as well as the mental elements (mens rea).

Homicide and Forensic Science
The nature of homicide cases often determines the types of forensic investigation that may occur. Common questions to be answered during the homicide investigation include those regarding the time, manner, and nature of death. The discovery and identification of the victim may also involve a great deal of forensic science.

In some instances the discovery of the crime is almost instantaneous, as there may be witnesses to the actual acts. In other cases the discovery of the victim adds dramatically to the complexity of the investigation. Types of crime scene investigations vary greatly depending on the nature of the crimes as well as the conditions of the crime scenes.

Forensic science has contributed significantly to the investigation of homicide. Two broad areas of forensics help investigators to narrow the evidence and its application. The first of these encompasses the methods used to estimate time of death. Investigators and forensic experts can make relatively accurate predictions regarding time of death when they know several important factors, including the condition of the body, the type of location where the body was found, and the external factors related to the condition of the body.

The nature of the injury causing death is the second important area where forensic science contributes to homicide investigation. By defining the type of injury, the cause, and the potential affect it has on the human body, forensic scientists help determine potential suspects as well as reasons for the homicide.

Carl Franklin

Further Reading
Geberth, Vernon J. Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic Techniques. 4th ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2006. Text used in many U.S. police academies provides full coverage of all aspects of homicide investigations.

Hanzlick, Randy. Death Investigation: Systems and Procedures. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2007. Focuses on the investigation of deaths from a legal perspective. Includes information on the procedures followed by medical examiners and coroners in the United States.

Snow, Robert L. Murder 101: Homicide and Its Investigation. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005. Seasoned homicide detective discusses all the steps taken in a murder investigation, using real-life cases as examples.

Snyder, LeMoyne. Homicide Investigation: Practical Information for Coroners, Police Officers, and Other Investigators. 3d ed. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas. 1977. Classic work intended for law-enforcement professionals presents comprehensive coverage of the topic.

See Also
Chain of custody; Coroner system; Crime scene documentation; Crime scene investigation; Crime scene reconstruction and staging; Criminalistics; Decomposition, human; Evidence processing; Forensic anthropology; Forensic archaeology.