Salem Press

The Eighties in America
Homelessness

Definition: The state of being without permanent shelter, an emerging urban social issue of the 1980's

During the 1980's, homelessness in urban areas of North America increased at a rapid rate. No longer identified with single male alcoholics, the ranks of the homeless began to include entire families and the working poor.

While homelessness was not new to the United States during the 1980's, it did start taking on new characteristics as the reported number of homeless individuals began to increase during the decade. Prior to the 1980's, the homeless were frequently characterized as vagrants and were often men with alcohol or substance-abuse problems. As the number of individuals found living on the streets and in emergency shelters began to increase, this characterization started to change. Beginning in 1983, the New York Times Index began using the term "homeless persons" instead of "vagrancy and vagrants" to classify articles dealing with the homeless. This marked a significant change in attitude, as homelessness began to be seen as a problem that afflicted not only the "undeserving," but also the "deserving" poor. Moreover, the role of post-traumatic stress disorder in homelessness came to be discussed more prominently, as Americans took notice of the number of military veterans living on the streets.

Defining Homelessness
During the 1980's, the term "homeless" signified two very different but overlapping groups. In one context, the word "homeless" was used to refer to a social class that included panhandlers, bag people, the shabbily dressed, and other visibly poor individuals seen in public places and apparently lacking social ties. This common usage of the term, however, clouded the issue of who was truly without housing. Lacking a universally accepted definition of homelessness, America found itself mired in controversy regarding the number of homeless individuals and how to deal with homelessness.

Homeless advocate Mitch Snyder, in the early 1980's, claimed that there were 3 million homeless people in the United States. Although Snyder later admitted that this figure was made up to signify the importance of the issue—big problems require big numbers—this figure was often quoted in the news and by those seeking to help the homeless. A study conducted by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), released in 1984, estimated that there were between 250,000 and 350,000 homeless in the U.S. on any given night. Local Los Angeles County activists, however, estimated that there were between 50,000 and 75,000 homeless people in Los Angeles alone. The wide range is indicative of the difficulty of counting a population defined by its lack of fixed address. HUD defined the homeless as those residing in emergency shelters and public and privates spaces not designed for shelter. Other estimates, based on various definitions of homelessness, often fell between these figures.

One area of agreement was that the number of people seeking emergency shelter during the 1980's had begun to grow. In New York City, the nightly average number of individuals in city-run shelters during January increased from about twenty-seven hundred in 1981 to just over ten thousand in 1987. Homeless families in city shelters increased these figures by nearly one thousand in 1981 and nearly forty-seven hundred in 1987. Similar trends were seen in other urban areas, both in the United States and Canada.

Reasons for the Increase
As homelessness increased during the 1980's, numerous studies to uncover its causes were undertaken in the United States in an effort to find solutions. Canada had homeless trends similar to those in the United States during the 1980's, but the research effort there lagged by nearly a decade. The research that was conducted had two main objectives. One was to identify the characteristics of homeless individuals that caused them to be homeless, and the other was to identify societal or structural changes that might be causing homelessness to increase.

The characteristics of homeless individuals varied in different urban areas, but they fit general patterns. Widely reported estimates found about one-third of homeless people to be substance abusers, about one-third to be suffering from severe mental illness, and about one-third of homeless males to be veterans. Since these groups are not mutually exclusive, individuals could be included in more than one classification. The average age of homeless adults was estimated to be about thirty-five; however, given the high number of homeless children, the overall average age was significantly lower. Single males accounted for approximately 50 percent of the homeless, single females about 10 percent, and families accounted for about one-third. A small percentage comprised children living on their own. About 50 percent of homeless adults had a high school diploma, and approximately 25 percent had some type of employment. During the 1980's, families represented the fastest-growing segment of the homeless population. In comparison with the pre-1980's homeless, the homeless of the 1980's were younger and more racially diverse, including increasing numbers of African Americans and Hispanics.

Since roughly one-third of homeless individuals were diagnosed with severe mental illness, it was argued that one structural factor contributing to the increase in homelessness was deinstitutionalization—the release of patients from mental institutions—and changes in the legal requirements to have someone institutionalized involuntarily. In the mid-1950's, patients in U.S. mental institutions numbered more than 550,000. In 1980, the figure was slightly less than 120,000. Since much of this reduction took place prior to 1980, however, this factor alone could not account for the dramatic increase in homelessness during that decade.

The large increase in crack cocaine use in the mid-1980's was seen as another possible cause of the increase in homelessness. A study conducted by the Cuomo Commission in New York found, through urinalysis of homeless people in New York City shelters for single individuals, that 65 percent tested positive for some form of substance abuse. Some 83 percent of those testing positive were cocaine users. Substance abuse, it was argued, makes it difficult to hold onto a steady job, breaks down social ties that could prevent homelessness, and consumes a large portion of available income that could be used for housing. Although cocaine use among homeless individuals did increase during the 1980's, however, the percentage of substance abusers among the homeless did not, which called into question the assumption that a change in the drug of choice had led to an increase in the number of homeless people.

Social Structures and Homelessness
It was argued that studies that identified the characteristics and composition of the homeless were useful in finding out who was at the bottom of the poverty ladder and ended up homeless, but were not as useful in understanding why homelessness increased during the 1980's. A more fruitful approach was to identify structural changes that took place just prior to and during the increase in homelessness. Since homelessness is, at its core, a lack of housing, this research looked at changes that affected the availability and affordability of housing.

One early and persistent structural explanation for the increase in homelessness was found in policies implemented by the Ronald Reagan administration. In early 1984, President Reagan was interviewed on Good Morning America saying of the homeless that they were "homeless, you might say, by choice." Critics of the administration argued that the cutbacks in public housing and other programs designed to help those with low incomes were the problem, rather than individuals choosing to be homeless.

Other structural changes often cited for the increase in homelessness include the reduction in single-room-occupancy hotels (SROs), gentrification, and abandonment of low-income housing. These changes reduced the amount of low-income housing available. It was also posited that the increase in the quantity and quality of homeless shelters during the 1980's acted as a magnet to attract those in less desirable housing situations, thereby increasing the count of homeless individuals.

In addition to a reduction in the availability and affordability of low-income housing was a reduction in the number of low-skill and casual jobs. Structural changes in the economy reduced the number of jobs available to day laborers. Moreover, the reduction in real income, coupled with the increase in the cost of available housing, forced increasingly more individuals and families out of the housing market and onto the streets. Parents in low-income jobs were forced to choose between feeding and clothing their children or providing a roof over their heads, and they chose food over shelter, contributing to the increase in homeless families. Research revealed that homelessness was a complex problem that lacked a simple solution.

Response to Homelessness
The primary response to homelessness occurred at the local level and varied considerably from city to city. In some places, such as Miami and Houston, the response was left almost entirely to charities and other private organizations. In other areas, such as Chicago and San Francisco, city governments worked with and helped fund nonprofit organizations to provide services to the homeless. Still other cities, such as New York and Philadelphia, ran their own shelters in addition to those run by nonprofit agencies. As homeless populations grew during the decade, this patchwork response faced a number of challenges.

In New York City and elsewhere, homeless advocates utilized the courts to guarantee a minimum level of response. By contrast, as the size and number of homeless shelters expanded, residents living near existing or planned shelters often sought to block them. As the decade progressed, cities came under increasing pressure not only to provide a place for the homeless to sleep, but also to reduce the number of homeless people in public places during the day.

For much of the 1980's, the U.S. government left the response to homelessness up to state and local governments. This changed in 1987 with the passage of the McKinney Homeless Assistance Act, which placed some of the burden of homelessness on the federal government. This legislation provided a multi-part response that not only included emergency food and shelter for the homeless but also provided for housing and job training to transition individuals out of homelessness. Advocates for the homeless welcomed the legislation as an acknowledgement that homelessness is a national issue, but critics wished that the implemented programs would do more.

Impact
Homelessness in North America during the 1980's changed from being perceived as a personal problem to being acknowledged as a public issue. As the homeless became more visible and began to include families and the working poor, homelessness no longer was viewed simply as the result of poor individual choices. It had seemingly become a problem that could affect anyone. To many, the increase in homelessness was symbolic of the failure of society to provide adequately for those unable to compete for jobs and resources. Homelessness continued to be a problem in urban areas beyond the end of the decade, but in response to the homelessness of the 1980's, government at all levels expanded its role to provide shelter and reduce the visible signs of homelessness.

Further Reading
Blau, Joel. The Visible Poor: Homelessness in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Provides an insightful discussion of homelessness, its causes, and the public response; outlines possible solutions. Emphasizes the experience of New York City.

Hombs, Mary Ellen. American Homelessness: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2001. Comprehensive guide to the issues, research, and resources related to homelessness during the 1980's and after.

Jencks, Christopher. The Homeless. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994. Good survey of the research on U.S. homelessness during the 1980's that discusses important causes and offers solutions.

Kozol, Jonathan. Rachel and Her Children: Homeless Families in America. New York: Crown, 1988. The stories of homeless families' day-to-day struggles to survive in New York City welfare hotels during the 1980's are explored in detail.

O'Flaherty, Brendan. Making Room: The Economics of Homelessness. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996. In an accessible way, economic analysis is used to explain the importance of various causes of homelessness and how these causes contributed to patterns experienced during the 1980's in selected cities in North America and Europe.

Rossi, Peter. Down and Out in America: The Origins of Homelessness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. Puts homelessness into a historical perspective and provides a detailed look at homelessness in Chicago during the 1980's.

Randall Hannum

See Also
Demographics of Canada; Demographics of the United States; Gentrification; Income and wages in Canada; Income and wages in the United States; McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987; Reagan, Ronald; Reaganomics; Recessions; Unemployment in Canada; Unemployment in the United States; Welfare.