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Editor: Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ohio Northern University ISBN: 978-1-58765-019-2 List Price: $457 December 2001 · 4 volumes · 1,901 pages · 8"x10" Top Ten Science Reference Sources, Booklist Magill's Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life Index A A-keratin, 1454 Aardvarks, 1-2 Aardwolves, 836 Abalone, 1518 Abdim's storks, 1547 Abdomen, 1723 Abiotic, 1723 Abiotic factors and biomes, 711 Ablation, 1723 Abomasum, 351, 1436 Absorption, 1723 Absorption in digestion, 352 Abundance, 1723 Abundance, cyclical, 1280 Abyssalpelagic zone, 995 Acacia ants, 318 Acanthaster planci, 1542 Acanthostega, 1318 Acarina, 66 Acceleration, 1723 Acceleration in heterochrony, 757 Accipiter cooperi, 732 Accipiter supercilliosus, 731 Accipiters, 731 Accipitrinae, 394 Acclimatization, 1723 Acclimatization farms, 1718 Accommodation, 520, 1652, 1723 Acetylcholine, 718, 1723 Acheulian culture, 824 Acid, 909 Acid-base disturbance, 1228 Acid rain, 1270, 1723 Acidosis, 1723 Acorn woodpeckers, 1156, 1704 Acorn worms, 205 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 361, 848 Acrididae, 683 Acrosome, 441, 586, 647 Actin, 965, 1087, 1097, 1723 Actinopterygii, 594 Active or wide foraging, 1723 Aculeus, 1723 Adaptation, 1723 Adaptation, sensory, 1472 Adaptations, 338; evolution, 487; extinction and, 507, 515; hypoxia, 1401;   infanticide and, 856; mechanisms of, 3-7; natural selection and, 1106;   population genetics and, 1286 Adaptive radiation; beaks and bills, 90 Adaptive coloration, 6 Adaptive radiation, 8-12, 494, 1723; bills, 89; divergent evolution   and, 272; marsupials, 1011 Addax nasomaculatus, 45 Addaxes, 45 Adelie penguins, 1222 Adenine (A), 1099 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 1089, 1147, 1407, 1723 Adenoviruses, 364 Adrenal cortex, 806 Adrenal medulla, 807 Adrenaline, 462 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 462, 805 Advanced Cell Technology (ACT), 237 Aegyptopithecus, 58, 1326 Aepyseros melampus, 44 Aerobic, 1723 Aerobic metabolism, 1723 Afferent neurons, 1120 African buffalo, 175 African elephants, 434 African Eve, 825 African fauna. See Fauna: Africa African golden cats, 170 African gray parrots, 1213 African lungfish, 969 African pancake tortoises, 1622 African penguins, 1222 African python, 1575 African rhinoceroses, 1420 African termites, 873 African wild asses, 385 African wildcats, 238 Afterbirth, 1250 Agassiz, Louis, 506, 1565 Age structures, 322, 1275 Aggregation pheromones, 1233 Aggression, 22, 445, 1592, 1598, 1723; baboons, 83; courtship and, 283;   crocodiles, 297; elephants, 436; ethology and, 850; fetal hormones and, 799; gorillas, 679;   groups and, 698; hierarchies and, 765; hominids, 787; instincts and, 883. See also Territoriality and aggression Aggression-submission relationships, 765 Aggressive mimicry, 1043, 1305 Aging, 13-15, 183, 1723; diseases and, 365; growth and, 706; life spans   and, 950; molting and, 1054; sleep and, 1511; veterinary medicine and, 1649 Agnatha, 41, 925, 1317, 1723 Agoutis, 580 Agrichemicals, 1270 Agriculture; domestication and, 381; veterinary medicine and, 1646 Ailuropoda melanoleuca, 92 Ailurus fulgens, 92 Airfoil, 1723 Ais, 72 Aistopoda, 28 Aix galericulata, 391 Aix sponsa, 391 Akekamai (dolphin), 934 Alarm calls, 253 Alarm pheromones, 1233 Alarm response, 936 Alates, 1723 Alcids, 125 Aldosterone, 463, 806, 1172, 1227, 1670 Alerting system, 718 Alex (parrot), 933 Algae; coral and, 41 Alkalosis, 1723 Alkaptonuria, 1100 Allele frequency, 1724 Alleles, 234, 661, 665, 725, 1103, 1130, 1139, 1724 Allelochemic, 1724 Allen's rule, 233 Allergies, 361 Alligator snapping turtles, 1623 Alligator River Wildlife Refuge, 269 Alligators, 295, 453, 922, 1551; Chinese, 536; courtship, 285; ears, 402; vocalizations, 1655 Allochthonous deposition, 1195 Allogrooming, 695, 1724 Allomone, 1724 Allomones, 1232 Alloparenting, 1157, 1724 Allopatric, 1724 Allopatric speciation model, 1340 Allosaurus, 16-18 Allozyme, 1724 Alluropoda melanoleuca, 95 Alpacas, 156, 575; domestication, 383; wool, 643 Alpha individuals, 765 Alpine tundra, 1619 Altitude and respiration, 1414 Altricial, 1724 Altricial species, 1155 Altruism, 19-23, 1287, 1724; grooming and, 695; groups and, 699; instincts and, 882 Alula, 1697 Alvarez, Luis, 356, 508, 513 Alvarez, Walter, 356, 513 Alveoli, 915, 974, 1414, 1724 Alveolus, 1724 Alvin (submersible), 308 Amazonian manatees, 991 Amazonian river turtles, 1623 Amber, 630, 1196, 1199 Ambergris, 378 Amblypygi, 64 Amboseli Elephant Research Project, Kenya, 307 Ambulocetus natans, 1575 Ambush hunting, 166 Ambush predation, 1306 Ambystomatidae, 30, 758 Ameloblasts, 1453 American pronghorns; horns, 813 American Acclimitization Society, 1635 American alligators, 295 American Association of Zoo Keepers, 1720 American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 1720 American Bison Society, 451 American Bison Association, 177 American black bears, 95 American cockroaches, 241 American flamingos, 600 American goldfinches, 1528 American kestrels, 1636 American lions, 1073 American pronghorns, 24-26, 45, 47, 687, 1437 American sables, 1675 American short-tailed shrews, 1501 American Sign Language (ASL), 682, 931, 933, 1328, 1724 American Veterinary Medical Association, 1645 American Zoo and Aquarium Association, 1719 Amino acids, 1099, 1148, 1724 Ammocoetes, 926 Ammonia, 909 Ammonites, 1498 Amnion, 1312 Amniote, 1724 Amniotic sac, 131 Amoebas, 1332, 1496 Amoebocytes, 348 Amoeboid cells, 1082 Amoeboid motion, 964 Amoebozoa, 889 Amphibians, 27-33, 42, 469, 1241, 1318, 1642; brain, 143;   courtship, 284; endocrine systems, 462; estivation, 474; Europe, 556; frogs and toads, 637;   hearts, 743; metamorphosis, 1028; morphogenesis, 1066; newts, 1439; noses, 1144;   Pacific Islands, 571; pH maintenance, 1228; pollution and, 1272; regeneration, 1364;   salamanders, 1439;   scales, 1454; shedding, 1053; skin, 1503; tails, 1574; thermoregulation, 250; water balance and, 1672 Amphioxus, 206, 469, 590 Amphisbaenia, 1520 Amphistyly, 1724 Amphiumas, 1441 Amphiumidae, 30 Amplexus, 277, 585, 640, 1724 Ampullae of Lorenzini, 1488 Amur leopards, 947 Amygdala, 446, 1724 Anabolism, 1724 Anacondas, 579 Anadromy, 1443 Anaerobic metabolism, 1024, 1724 Analogue, 1724 Anaphylactic shock, 361, 1263 Anaplasma, 1330 Anapsida, 1395 Anas acuta, 388 Anas clypeata, 390 Anas formosa, 388 Anas laysanensis, 388 Anas platyrhynchos, 388 Anatidae, 388 Anatini, 389 Anatomy, 34-37, 495, 1711, 1724; comparative, 1238; hominid, 61; vocalizations and, 1657 Anaximander, 491 Andean condors, 1660 Andean flamingos, 600 Andrias, 30 Androgenesis, 1217 Androgens, 464-465, 801, 806, 1484, 1724 Andropodia, 278 Anemia, 362 Aneurysms; hydrostatic skeletons and, 834 Angiosperms, 245, 622 Angiotensin II, 463 Angle of attack, 1724 Anglerfish, 591, 998, 1001 Anglers, 309 Angora goats, 674 Anguilla anguilla, 428 Anguilla rostrata, 428, 598 Anguillidae, 428 Anguilliformes, 428 Anhimidae, 388 Animal husbandry, 148-149, 380, 1724; breeding and, 149; disease   and, 305; rhythms and, 1426; veterinary medicine and, 1645; zoos and, 1718 Animal kingdom, 38-43, 1568 Animal life and, 486-490 Animal life and evolution, 486, 490 Animal psychology, 1711 Animal rights, 306 Animalia, 1079 Anisogamy, 1478, 1724 Anisoptera, 328 Ankylosaurs, 355, 1544 Annelids, 40, 833, 1706, 1713; circulatory systems, 211; endocrine   systems, 456; exoskeletons, 499; muscles, 1091; nervous   systems, 142 Annual monogamy, 1019 Anoas, 538 Anoles, 188, 961 Anolis, 547 Anomalocaris, 1317 Anomura, 288, 302 Anopheles, 876 Anosmia, 1516, 1724 Anseranas semipalmata, 392 Anseranatini, 392 Anseriformes, 125, 388 Ant lions, 1613 Antagonism, 1724 Antarctic fauna. See Fauna: Antarctica Anteaters, 2, 71, 74, 551; giant anteaters, 71; lactation, 916; pygmy anteaters, 71 Antelope, 24, 44-47, 1450, 1629; Africa, 526; clones, 238;   four-horned, 44; klipspringer, 1232; pheromones, 1232; Tibetan, 536 Antennae, 48-51, 152, 1724; beetles, 103; ears, 400; flies, 606;   grasshoppers, 683; mosquitoes, 1071; pheromones and, 1234; snails, 1517 Antennapedia, 1104 Antennapedia complex, 777 Anterior pituitary gland, 1724 Anterior-posterior axis, 777 Anthozoa, 280, 832 Anthracosauria, 28 Anthrax, 363 Anthropogenic disturbance, 1725 Anthropoidea, 57, 1056 Anthropomorphism, 444, 886, 1725 Antibiotics, 361, 363 Antibodies, 361, 846, 1725; lactation and, 916; response, 846 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 462, 910, 1172, 1670, 1725 Antigen-MHC complex, 847 Antigens, 846, 1725; diseases and, 361 Antillean manatees, 991 Antilocapra americana, 47 Antilocapra americana, 45 Antilocapridae, 24 Antioxidants, 952 Antipredator benefits, 1725 Antlers, 311, 811-814, 1725; elk, 438; endoskeletons and, 467;   moose, 1062; reindeer, 1370; shedding, 1052; ungulates, 1629 Ants, 1, 51-53, 865; acacia, 318; antennae, 48; aphids and, 317;   colonies, 703; competition among, 268; parthenogenesis, 1215; Wilson, Edward O., 869 Anura, 30, 637 Anus, 343 Anvil (ears), 402 Aorta, 1725 Apatosaurus, 54-56, 1447 Apes, 57, 1725; orangutans, 1166; tool use, 1613; vocalizations, 1658 Apes to hominids, 57-62 Aphids, 80, 865; ants and, 317; parthenogenesis, 1215 Aphotic zone, 994, 1001 Apical ectoderm ridge (AER), 1066 Apical ectodermal ridge (AER), 1725 Apidium, 1326 Aplysia, 718, 883 Apocrine sweat glands, 1671 Apodiformes, 126, 829 Aposematic coloration, 162, 315 Aposomatic coloration, 1725 Appendicular skeleton, 467, 1725 Apposition compound eyes, 521 Approach and follow responses, 853 Apterous, 1725 Apterygiformes, 123 Aquaculture, 1725 Aquariums, 1718 Aquatic birds, 125 Aquila chrysaetos, 328, 396 Aquila pomarina, 732 Aquila rapax, 396 Aquilinae, 396 Arabian horses, 537, 816 Arabian oryx, 451 Arachnids, 40, 63-67, 75, 142, 284, 890, 1460, 1530, 1725 Aranae, 64 Arboreal, 1725 Arboreal stratification, 1057 Archaeogastropoda, 1518 Archaeopteryx, 68-70, 123, 358, 582, 1321, 1639 Archenteron, 228, 1725 Archeology, 382 Archeopteryx, 1395 Architeuthi, 1152 Architeuthis harveyi, 1587 Archontans, 985 Archosauria, 1396 Arctic fauna. See Fauna: Arctic Arctic foxes, 534, 1619 Arctic hares, 534 Arctic terns; migration, 1039 Arctic tundra, 1619 Arctic wolves, 1620 Arctodus, 93 Ardrey, Robert, 787 Arenivaga investigata, 241 Areola, 916 Aristotle, 229, 440, 491, 597, 628, 706, 1243, 1264, 1490, 1709 Armadillos, 2, 71, 74, 551, 1454 Arrector pili muscle, 1504 Arrestant pheromones, 1233 Artedi, Peter, 597 Arterial system, vertebrate, 216 Arteries, 218, 1725 Arterioles, 216, 1725 Arthropods, 40, 63, 75-78, 284, 288, 300, 890, 1053, 1081, 1240,   1317, 1460, 1713, 1725; brain, 142; centipedes, 185; endocrine systems,   456; exoskeletons, 499; hearts, 742; hydrostatic skeletons, 833; locomotion, 963;   metamorphosis, 1029; muscles, 1092;parthenogenesis, 1215; poisonous, 1262;   regeneration, 1364; shedding, 1503; shells, 1496 Artificial insemination, 150, 238, 1393 Artificial nests, 1127 Artificial selection, 664 Artiodactyls, 225, 311, 437, 527, 673, 745, 986, 1062, 1629, 1725 Ascideans, 205 Asexual, 79-81 Asexual reproduction, 79, 81, 892, 1288, 1373, 1477, 1725;   coral, 280; flatworms, 603; parthenogenesis, 1215; protozoa, 1331 Asian elephants, 434 Asian fauna. See Fauna: Asia Asian lions, 955 Asiatic black bears, 95 Asiatic black bears; poaching, 452 Asiatic cockroaches, 240 Asio flammeus, 1635 Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 1720 Associative learning, 937 Assortative mating, 1725 Asterias rubens, 1542 Asteroidea, 406, 1541 Asteroids and mass extinctions, 508, 1206 Asthenosphere, 1725 Astragalus, 45, 1725 Asynchronous muscle, 1089 Atlantic hagfish, 926 Atlantic salmon, 1443 Atlantic surf clams, 220 Atlas vertebrae, 1643 Atmosphere and respiration, 1414 Atokes, 1707 Atolls, 281, 892, 1355, 1725 Atomic Energy Commission, 425 ATP molecules, 180 Atria, 741, 1725 Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), 463 Atrioventricular valves, 743 Attractant pheromones, 1233 Auditory nerve, 1725 Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species (ACRES), 238 Audubon Society, 1692 Audubon, John James, 124, 449 Auerbach plexus, 351 Auks; extinction, 509; great, 108 Aurignacian culture, 824 Aurochs, 383, 554 Austin (chimpanzee), 887 Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), 543 Australian fauna. See Fauna: Australia Australian honey eaters, 1594 Australian lungfish, 969 Australopithecines, 59, 782, 790, 823, 1725; evolution, 489 Australopithecus anamensis, 1201 Australopithecus afarensis, 783 Australopithecus africanus, 783 Australopithecus boisei, 1200 Australopithecus robustus, 783 Autochthonous deposition, 1195 Autoimmune diseases, 846 Automaticity, 742, 1096 Autonomic nervous system, 1504 Autonomic nervous system, 1120, 1474 Autoradiography, 470 Autorhythmicity, 1096 Autotomy, 1725 Autotomy and defense mechanisms, 317 Autotrophic protozoa, 1331 Autotrophs, 244, 615, 618, 1725 Avery, Oswald, 666 Aves, 42, 123, 1241 Avian influenza, 305 Axel, Richard, 883 Axial skeleton, 467, 1725 Axis vertebrae, 1643 Axons, 1119, 1726 Aye-ayes, 943 Aysheaia, 1317 Aythya valisineria, 390 Aythyinae, 390 B B-keratin, 1454 B lymphocytes (B cells), 846 Babinski response, 1362 Babirusas, 538 Baboons, 82-84, 1189, 1326; competition among, 267; hamadryas, 979;   hierarchies, 766; homes, 774; olive, 978; troops, 1187 Bacillus anthracis, 363 Backcross progeny, 234 Background extinctions, 236, 507, 512 Backshore, 1605 Bacteria, 486, 846, 1239; digestion and, 344; diseases and, 360-362; life spans, 952 Bacterioplankton, 995 Bactrian camels, 156 Baculum, 1018, 1392 Badgers, 1676; defense mechanisms, 315 Badlands, South Dakota, 1627 Baer, Karl Ernst von, 337, 440, 758 Baer's law, 440 Bagworms, 873 Baikal teal ducks, 388 Balaena glacialis, 1685 Balaena mysticetus, 1685 Balaenoptera borealis, 1685 Balaenoptera musculis, 1685 Balaenoptera physalus, 1685 Bald eagles, 109, 394, 450 Baleen, 1726 Baleen plates, 1682 Baleen whales. See Whales, baleen Ball-and-socket joint, 467 Baltimore orioles, 128 Banded anteaters, 1578 Bandicoots, 538 Banding, 1726 Bandipur National Park, India, 537 Barbs in feathers, 582 Barn owls, 1182 Barnacles, 303, 1558; shells, 1497 Barnyard ducks, 390 Barometric pressure and respiration, 1414 Barrier islands, 1608 Barrier reef, 1726 Barrier reefs, 892, 1355 Basal ganglia, 1120 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 1025, 1148, 1726 Basal nuclei, 144 Basilar membrane, 738, 1726 Basking, 1600 Basking sharks, 309, 1488 Bass, 1551 Bassommatophora, 1518 Bat hawks, 732 Bateleurs, 395 Bates, Henry Walter, 1111 Batesian mimicry, 162 Batesian mimicry, 317, 1043, 1305, 1726 Bathypelagic zone, 995 Batoidea, 1487 Bats, 85-87, 1137; desert, 328; echolocation, 402, 1136, 1615;   flight and, 612; fruit, 571; hibernation, 763; seed dispersal, 615; wings, 1700 Bay ducks, 390 Bay owls, 1182 Bayliss, William, 461 Beaches, 567, 1605-1608 Beaded lizards, 960, 1262 Beadle, George W., 1101 Beaked whales, 375 Beaks and bills, 6, 88-91, 123, 342; Darwin's finches, 272;   eagles, 394; flamingos, 600; geese, 657; hadrosaurs, 722; hawks, 731;   hummingbirds, 829; ingestion, 861; parrots, 1213; platypuses, 1259; sparrows and   finches, 1525; swans, 1555; turtles, 1623; vultures, 1660; woodpeckers, 1702 Bearded vultures, 1660 Bears, 10, 92-95, 450, 538, 690, 1620; Asiatic black, 94; cannibalism   and, 163; carnivores, 165; Europe, 555; grizzly, 690-692; Kodiak, 93; pandas and, 1209;   poaching, 452; polar bears, 10, 533, 1266-1268; scavengers, 1456; spectacled, 94, 577; sun, 93 Beavers, 96-98, 1428, 1431; home building, 774; Latvia, 553 Bedbugs, 277 Beebe, William, 449 Beefalo, 235 Beer, Gavin de, 339 Bees, 99-102, 254, 865; Africanized, 269; Africanized bees, 662;   antennae, 49; circadian rhythms, 1422; copulation, 279;   domestication, 384; ethology and, 480;Hawaii, 570; instincts, 882;   parthenogenesis, 1215; stings, 1263 Beeswax, 101 Beetles, 103-106; antennae, 49; bombardier, 316; carrion, 1457;   dung, 1456; exoskeletons, 500; forest fire, 1475; infanticide, 856; scarabs, 1456 Behavior, 1471, 1726; aging and, 14; camouflage, 160; communication   and, 252; cooperative, 20, 246; copulatory, 278; courtship, 283; displays, 366;   elephant seals, 431; emotions and, 444; endocrine systems and, 457; environment and, 61;   estrus and, 476; ethology, 480; evolution and, 496; feeding, 342; fossils and, 631; grooming, 693;   hermaphrodites, 755; hormones and, 798, 803; imprinting and, 849; ingestion and, 859;   instincts, 880; language and, 932; learning and, 936; migration, 1036; molting and, 1054;   Neanderthals, 1115; parental, 1158; pecking orders, 766; primates, 1324; reflexes and, 1357;   reproduction and, 1374; reproductive strategies and, 1380; rhythms and, 1422, 1427, 1707;   territoriality and, 1127; testosterone and, 1391; thermoregulation and, 1600, 1664;   vision and, 1653; vocalizations and, 1657 Behavioral ecology, 1726; ethology, 482 Behavioral isolation, 895 Behavioral thermoregulation, 1726 Behaviorism, 445, 1726; reflexes and, 1362 Beling, Ingeborg, 1422 Bell, Charles, 1357 Beluga sturgeon, 595 Beluga whales, 376 Bengal tigers, 1610 Benthic animals, 1001 Benthic zone, 994, 1000 Benthos, 995, 1726 Bergmann's rule, 233 Bernoulli's principle, 609 Bet-hedging, 1726 Bewick's swans, 1554 Bicarbonate, 1497 Bicarbonate buffer system, 1227 Bicuspid valve, 218, 743 Bifurcation, 1726 Bifurcations, 1066 Big bang, 486 Big belly seahorses, 1464 Big game, 1726 Bighorn sheep, 328 Bilateral symmetry, 1083, 1365, 1726 Bile salts, 1726 Bills. See Beaks and bills Bindins, 586 Binocular vision, 1324, 1650, 1726 Binomial nomenclature, 1239, 1566-1567, 1710, 1726 Biochemistry, 11, 1238, 1711 Bioclimatic zone, 1726 Biodiversity, 107-113, 118, 488, 617, 1076, 1726; adaptations   and, 4; biogeography and, 114; cloning and, 238; extinction and, 515; habitats and, 714;   Madagascar, 561; mutations and, 1101; pollution and, 1269; reefs, 1354; urban and suburban wildlife, 1634 Bioelectrical fields; fish and, 1474 Bioethics, 118 Biogenetic law, 1726 Biogeography, 6, 11, 114-116, 495, 1039 Biological clocks, 49, 761, 799, 1424, 1726; migration and, 702 Biological magnification, 616, 1726 Biological rhythm, 1726 Biology, 117-118, 1569, 1726; zoo biology, 1720 Bioluminescence, 119-121, 308, 995, 1001, 1151, 1727 Biomass, 424-425, 618, 1714, 1727 Biomes, 115, 686, 709-715, 1727 Biosphere, 712, 1727 Biostratigraphy, 632, 1727 Biotechnology, 1727 Biotic, 1727 Biotic potential, 1293 Bipedal, 1727 Bipeds and locomotion, 966 Bird songs, 1656; imprinting and, 851; instincts and, 881; learning, 938;   owls, 1185; reproduction and, 253, 1376; sparrows, 1525; territoriality and, 1127, 1593 Bird watching, 128, 881 Birds, 42, 88, 122-129, 469, 566, 1241, 1552, 1642; Africa, 527;   Antarctica, 530; Arctic, 533; Asia, 534; Audubon, John James, 124; beaches, 1606; birth, 131;   blood, 1409; blood flow, 1409; brain, 143-144; Central America, 551; chickens, 198; claws, 224;   coniferous forests and, 623; courtship, 285; deciduous forests and, 624; dinosaurs and, 611;   dodos, 615; dreams, 1510; ears, 402; echolocation, 402; Europe, 556; eyes, 522;   false penis, 278; feathers, 582; Galápagos Islands, 560; gas exchange, 653, 1408; Guam, 571;   hearts, 741; imprinting, 849; ingestion, 861; lungs, 1408; Madagascar, 562; molting, 1054;   nesting, 1125; offspring care, 1155; omnivores, 1161; origins, 69; ostriches, 1176; ova, 441;   Pacific Islands, 570; pair-bonding and, 1191; pelicans, 1219; penguins, 1222; population   fluctuations, 1281; respiration in, 1407, 1412; scales, 1454; sleep movement, 1512;   songbirds, 1277; South America, 577; storks, 1547; swans, 1554; territoriality and, 1592;   tool use, 1613; tundra, 1620; urban and suburban wildlife, 1635; vocalizations, 1655;   vultures, 1660; waterfowl, 921; wing features, 1699; wings, 1697 Birth, 130-133, 320; grooming and, 695; growth and, 705; virgin, 1215 Birth rates, 1275, 1292 Biserial dermal armor, 1727 Bison, 47, 175-178, 383, 449, 687, 1691; American, 235, 451; zoos and, 1718 Bison bison, 383, 451 Bison bonasus, 451 Bithorax complex, 777 Bittern; endangered species, 556 Bivalves, 220, 1048, 1498, 1727 Black-and-white casqued hornbills, 857 Black bears, 95; scavengers, 1456 Black caimans, 299 Black-collared lizards, 328 Black eagles, 396 Black-footed ferrets, 453, 687; prairie dogs and, 262 Black-headed ducks, 389 Black kites, 732 Black mambas, 527, 1264 Black marten, 1507 Black necked cobras, 1582 Black panthers, 899, 946 Black rhinoceroses, 1420 Black rhinonoceroses; estrus, 476 Black-tailed prairie dogs; social organizations, 979; vocalizations, 1657 Black vultures, 1660 Black wallaroos, 905 Black widow spiders, 284, 328, 1263, 1533; cannibalism and, 163 Black, Davison, 784 Blackbirds; competition among, 268 Bladder, 909, 1392 Bladderworms, 1561 Blastema, 1365, 1727 Blastocoel, 227, 705 Blastocyst, 228, 441, 1250, 1312 Blastodisc, 441 Blastomere, 227, 331 Blastopore, 228, 442 Blastula, 227, 441, 808, 1240, 1727 Blatella germanica, 240 Blatta orientalis, 240 Bleckmann, H., 1475 Blesboks, 44 Blister beetles, 106 Blood, 210, 216, 742, 1727; birds, 1409; gas exchange and, 652;   minute-volume, 218; mosquitoes and, 1071; oxygen and, 1402; whales, 376 Blood cells, 1226 Blood flow, 651; birds, 1409; hypoxia and, 1402; noses and, 1144 Blood flukes, 1560 Blood groups, 11 Blood pressure, 212 Blood vessels, 211, 1727 Blood volume, 1226 Bloom, Robert, 783 Blowflies, 608, 877 Blubber, 1727; seals, 1467; thermoregulation and, 1602, 1664; whales, 375, 1682 Blue crabs, 288, 303; adaptations to low oxygen, 1403 Blue tits, 939 Blue whales, 1682, 1685 Boa constrictors, 579 Boars, 1246; tusks, 1583 Boas, 1523 Bobcats, 170, 328 Body forms and ingestion, 859 Body mass, 1727 Body parts and fossilization, 630 Body shape, 776; fish, 595; flight and, 611; manatees, 991; Neanderthals, 1114; snakes, 1397, 1520 Body size; climate and, 566; clines and, 232; life spans and, 952;   metabolism and, 1025; molting and, 1053; nutrient requirements and, 1147; reproduction   and, 1379; sex determination and, 1483; sleep and, 1510 Body-spine theory, 590 Body symmetry, 1365 Body temperature. See Thermoregulation Bohr, Christian, 1416 Boidae, 1523 Boll weevils, 105 Boltrun, 1727 Bolus, 350 Bombardier beetles, 316 Bombyx mori, 1030 Bond, 1727 Bonding behaviors, 1727 Bone, 134-137, 1317, 1453, 1727; beaks and bills, 88; birds, 122;   cancellous, 135; compact, 135; endoskeletons, 466; fossilization and, 630; growth of, 705;   horns, 811; horns and antlers and, 812; skin and, 1503; teeth and, 1581; vertebrates, 1642 Bone marrow, 846 Bonetoks, 46 Bongo antelope, 44 Bonnet, Charles, 1217 Bonobos, 201, 478; estrus, 476; language and, 931 Bonpland, Aimé, 580 Bony fishes, 594 Boocercus eurycerus, 44 Book lungs, 1727; spiders, 1532 Booted eagles, 396, 731 Poephagus; grunniens, 383 Bos indicus, 383 Bos primigenius, 383 Bos taurus, 383 Bottle-nosed dolphins, 376, 934 Bottleneck effects, 1140 Bottlenose dolphins, 378 Boucher de Perthes, J., 782 Boule, Marcellin, 1115 Boundary conditions, 1066 Bovidae, 175, 673 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, 818 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 305, 363, 1646 Bovines; antelope, 44; herbivores, 747 Bowerbirds, 369, 543, 1478; courtship, 285 Bowhead whales, 949, 1685 Box jellyfish, 1586 Box turtles, 1622 Boyce, Mark, 1382 Boyer, Herbert, 668 Brachiation, 1727 Brachiopods, 514 Brachiopterygii, 594 Brachiosaurus, 138-140, 355, 1447 Brachiostoma, 590 Brachycephalidae, 31 Brachycera, 606; antennae, 48 Brachyura, 288, 302 Bradley, Guy, 584 Bradypus grisues, 72 Brahminy kites, 732 Brain, 35, 39, 141-146, 1119, 1241, 1642; cephalopods, 1151; decoding   sound, 403; dreams and, 1510; emotions and, 446; endoskeletons and, 467; gorillas, 679;   hermaphrodites, 755; hominid, 784; language and, 930; mind versus, 1123; neurulation   and, 229; Odontoceti, 377; perception and, 737; primates, 1324; sense organs and, 1471;   sleep and, 1510; sleep movement and, 1512; smell and, 1515; spiders, 1533; vision   and, 1650; vocalizations and, 1657; whales, 1683 Brain stem, 143 Brain, C. K., 783 Bramblings, 1525 Branchial systems, 1243 Branchiostoma, 1320 Breathing, 1415 Breeding; diseases and, 364; domestication, 380; genetics and, 664; groups   and, 702; herds, 753 Breeding programs; wisent, 451 Breeding cycles, 1280 Breeding programs, 147-151, 1236, 1393; eagles, 395; pandas, 1210; tigers, 1611 Breeding seasons, 1017 Bridge, 1727 Bristles, 642, 1727; exoskeletons and, 501 British Museum, 442 Brittle stars, 407 Bronchi, 974, 1408, 1727 Bronchioles, 1414 Brontosaurus, 54, 355. See Apatosaurus Bronx Zoo, 177, 1718 Brood, 1727 Brood-parasites, 1156 Brood patch, 1504 Brood pouch, 1727 Brook trout, 1444 Brooksella, 1081 Brown bears; Europe, 555 Brown bears, 95 Brown-hooded wood cockroaches, 241 Brown hyenas, 837 Brown pelicans, 453, 1219 Brown recluse spiders, 65 Brown tree snakes, 571 Brown, Frank A, 1424 Brown, W. L., 869 Browser, 1727 Brucellosis, 1646, 1727 Bryant, Peter J., 1366 Bryant, Susan V., 1367 Bubalus bubalis, 383 Bubble feeding, 701 Bubo bubo, 1182 Bubo virginianus lagophonus, 1182 Bubo virginianus virginianus, 1182 Bucardos; cloning, 238 Budding, 1331, 1727 Budgerigars, 543 Buffalo, 47, 175-178, 449; Africa, 526; domestication, 383 Buffeo dolphins, 376 Buffering and pH maintenance, 1227 Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc de, 493 Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc de, 1710 Bufonidae, 30, 637 Bulbourethral glands, 1392 Bulbus arteriosus, 742 Bull sharks, 1488 Bulla, 1727 Bullfrogs, 328; mate competition, 1374 Bundle of His, 217 Bünning hypothesis, 1423 Buntings, 534, 1525 Bureau of Land Management, 1692 Bureau of Land Management, U.S., 818 Burgess Shale, 208, 515, 631 Buri, Peter, 1141 Burros, 386 Burrowing and claws, 223 Burrowing insectivore, 1727 Burrowing owls, 1183 Burrows, 772 Bursa of Fabricius, 846 Bush babies, 527 Bush dogs, 579 Bush hyraxes, 839 Bushbacks, 44 Bushbucks, 526 Bushmasters, 580 Bustards, kori, 125 Buteo buteo, 732 Buteo hawks, 395, 731 Buteo jamaicensis, 732, 1636 Buteo swainsoni, 732 Buteogallus aequinoctialis, 733 Buteoninae, 395 Butterflies, 152-155; blue morpho, 153; monarch, 154, 315; Palos   Verdes, 453; viceroy, 153; western pygmy blue, 152 Buzzards, 534, 731-732 Bwindi Impenetrable Forest National Park, Uganda, 527 Bycanistes subcylindricus, 857 C Cabybaras, 1431 Cacatua moluccensis, 1214 Caecilia thompsoni, 1318 Caecilians, 1318 Caenolestidae, 1011 Caenorhabidits elegans, 667-668, 890, 1434 Caimans, 295, 299, 579, 922, 1551 Cairina moschata, 391 Cairini, 391 Calabaria, 1575 Calamus, 582 Calcarea, 1535 Calcareous, 1727 Calcarine fissure, 1324 Calcichordata, 205 Calcification, 501, 1727; antlers, 812 Calcitonin, 464, 806 Calcium, 812, 1496; endoskeletons and, 468 Calcium carbonate, 41 Calcium ions, 1087 Calcium phosphate, 1149 Caldwell, W. H., 1059 Calico salmon, 1443 California condors, 453, 1660 Calimari, 309 Callinectes sapidus, 288 Calliphora, 877 Callithricidae, 1325 Calorie, 1727 Calories, 1026, 1148 Camas rats, 676 Cambrian explosion, 514 Camelids; South America, 575 Camels, 147, 156-158, 1437; Australia, 540, 544; Bactrian, 535;   domestication, 383; thermoregulation, 1665 Camelus bactrianus, 383 Camelus dromedarius, 383 Camouflage, 4, 122, 159-162, 366, 1255, 1728; cats, 171;   chameleons, 188; mimicry and, 1042; octopuses, 1151; penguins, 1222; seahorses, 1463;   shedding and, 1055; sleep and, 1509; snakes, 1524 Canada geese, 658; hierarchies, 767 Canadian Veterinary Medical Association, 1645 Canaliculi, 468 Canals, ear, 737 Cancellous bone, 468, 1728 Cancer; cells, 183; immune system and, 846 Canidae, 370, 1635 Canids; copulation, 278; foxes, 634 Caniforms, 985 Canine teeth, 1582 Canines, 1728 Canis familiaris, 382 Canis latrans, 328, 372, 980, 1637 Canis lupus, 382, 980 Cannibalism, 163-164; hominids, 787; praying mantis, 1302 Canvasback ducks, 390 Capacity, 233 Capillaries, 216, 742, 1728; closed circulatory systems, 211;   endoskeletons and, 468 Capra, 673 Capra aegarus, 382 Capra hircus, 382 Caprimulgiformes, 126 Capripox, 305 Captivity; life spans and, 950 Capybaras, 578, 1428 Carangiform swimming, 1728 Carapace, 300, 302, 1396, 1497, 1622, 1728 Carbohydrates, 1147, 1728 Carbon dioxide, 651, 972, 1171, 1227, 1414 Carbon-14 dating, 11, 825, 1206 Carbonate, 1496 Carbonic anhydrase, 1496-1497, 1728 Carbonization, 630 Carcharhinidae, 1488 Carcharhinus leucas, 1488 Carcharodon carcharias, 1488, 1687 Cardiac muscle, 1095 Cardiac muscle cells, 182 Cardiac output, 1728 Cardinalinae, 1525 Cardinalis cardinalis, 1527 Cardinals, 1525 Cardiovascular systems, 1243 Carduelinae, 1525 Carduelis tristis, 1528 Caretaking; parental roles, 1157 Carew, Thomas J., 718 Caribbean fauna. See Fauna: Caribbean Caribbean flamingos, 600 Caribou, 311, 532, 1370, 1620; antlers, 813 Carnassial teeth, 1728 Carnassials, 861 Carnivores, 92, 165-169, 342, 409, 615, 985, 1148, 1160,   1241, 1728; eagles, 396; Europe, 555; foxes, 634; hawks, 732; herbivores   and, 745; hyenas, 836; ingestion, 861; jellyfish, 902; marine, 998; mollusks, 1050;   offspring care, 1157; penguins, 1223; plants, 1254; polar bears, 10; snakes, 1520;   social organizations, 980; storks, 1547; Tyrannosaurus, 1626; velociraptors, 1639; zooplankton, 1713 Carnosaurs, 16 Carolina mantid, 1301 Carotene, 1505 Carotenoids, 582 Carp, 536 Carpet beetles, 106 Carr, Archie, 1037 Carrion, 1459, 1728 Carrion beetles, 1457 Carrying capacity, 425, 688, 1293, 1380, 1693, 1728; migration and, 1038 Carson, Rachel, 450 Cartilage, 134-137, 1487, 1643, 1687, 1728; endoskeletons, 466;   endoskeletons and, 468; fins, 591 Cartilage bone, 136 Cassowaries, 123, 543, 571, 1177 Caste, 1728 Castes and social insects, 867 Castoreum, 97, 1728 Castration and behavior, 801 Casuariiformes, 123 Cat Loc Nature Reserve, Vietnam, 537 Catabolic pathways, 1100 Catabolism, 1728 Catamounts, 1073 Catarrhini, 57, 1056, 1325, 1728 Catastrophes and communities, 261 Catastrophism, 492, 516, 1194, 1728 Caterpillars, 878 Catfish, 1551; clariid, 524 Cats, 147, 170-174, 1136-1137, 1451; African wildcats, 238;   carnivores, 165; cheetahs, 194; domestication, 173, 383; dreams, 1510; foxes and, 634;   hierarchies, 766; jaguars, 899; leopards, 946; lions, 955; tigers, 1609; urban and suburban wildlife, 1635 Cattle, 47, 147, 175-178, 1631; birth, 131; domestication, 383;   E. coli and, 362; foot and mouth disease, 306; lactation, 917; sleeping sickness and, 528; uterus, 1312 Caudal fin, 1728 Caudata, 29 Cavia porcellus, 383 Cebidae, 551, 1326 Cecum, 1728 Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), 1065 Cell division, 180 Cell functions; hormones and, 804; oxygen and, 1401 Cell-mediated immunity, 1728 Cell membrane, 179, 1472 Cell proteins, 180 Cell structure, 179 Cell types, 38, 179-184; bone, 812; bone cells, 136; epithelial   cells, 1502; growth and, 704; mitotic cells, 1502; regeneration and, 1365; sense organs, 1472 Cells, 1066, 1079, 1216, 1710; aging, 13; blood, 1226; specialization, 331 Cellular biology, 117 Cellular immune response, 846 Cellular rearrangement; gastrulation and, 228 Cellular respiration, 1253, 1411, 1728 Cellulose, 1728 Celsius, 1728 Censuses, 323, 1006 Centipedes, 75, 185-187 Central American fauna. See Fauna: Central America Central nervous system, 143, 1119, 1472 Central Park, New York City, 1636, 1718 Centrolenidae, 31 Centrum, 1643, 1728 Cephalization, 142 Cephalochordata, 205 Cephalophus, 979 Cephalopods, 891, 1048, 1151; circulatory systems, 211; endocrine systems, 458; tentacles, 1586 Cephalothorax, 820, 1728 Ceratius, 998 Ceratopsians, 356 Ceratosaurs, 355 Ceratosaurus, 355 Cercal organs, 400, 1728 Cercariae, 604 Cercopithecinae, 1056 Cercopithecoidea, 57, 1056 Cerebellar penduncles, 1121 Cerebellum, 143, 1120 Cerebral cortex, 1120 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 144 Cerebrum, 143 Cervidae, 311, 1062 Cervinae, 311 Cervix, 1386 Cervus dama, 382 Cervus elaphus, 382 Cesarean section, 1313 Cestoda, 603 Cetaceans, 375, 1682, 1729; ears, 403; flippers, 592 Cetorhinus maximus, 1488 Chaetognatha, 1713 Chaffinches, 1525 Chain of being, 491 Chalones, 706 Chamaeleo chameleon chameleon, 189 Chamaeleo dilepts dilepts, 190 Chamaeleo pardalis, 190 Chambered nautiluses, 1153 Chambers, Robert, 492 Chameleons, 188-190, 961; coloration, 160; Madagascar, 562 Chamois goat antelope, 674 Chaparral, 191-193 Character displacement, 411, 869 Characters, 271 Charadriiformes, 125 Chargaff, Erwin, 667 Chars, 1443 Chase, Martha, 666 Chauliodus, 1583 Cheetahs, 170, 194-196; clones, 238; estrus, 477; locomotion, 966 Cheirogaleidae, 944 Chelate, 1729 Chelicera, 288 Chelicerae, 820, 1729 Chelicerates, 890 Cheliceriformes, 63, 1460 Chelidae, 1623 Chelonia, 1396 Chelonia mydas, 1004 Cheloniidae, 1623 Chelus fimbriatus, 1623 Chemical defenses, 315 Chemical pollutants, 1729 Chemical signals and communication, 252 Chemoreceptors, 737, 1461, 1473, 1729 Chemotaxis, 1514, 1729 Chen hyperborea, 1139 Chickadees, 1127 Chickens, 126, 197, 200; domestication, 383; pecking orders, 766;   pecking orders, 766; Salmonella and, 362; vocalizations, 1656 Chihuahuas, 370 Chilean flamingos, 600 Chilopoda, 185 Chimaeridae, 1490 Chimpanzees, 201-204, 526-527, 782, 1326; cannibalism and, 163;   communication and, 931; emotions, 445; estrus, 476; habituation studies, 720; intelligence, 885;   learning, 938; mirror test, 445; tool use, 1613 Chinchillas, 577, 1431 Chinese alligators, 295 Chinese mantid, 1301 Chinook salmon, 1443 Chinstrap penguins, 1222 Chipmunks, 1431, 1538; dormancy, 761 Chironex fleckeri, 1586 Chirus, 536 Chitin, 501, 820, 874, 973, 1081, 1729; invertebrate claws, 225 Chitons, 1048 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 1729 Chlorophyll, 1729 Choanocytes, 348, 860, 890 Choeropsis liberiensis, 769 Cholecalciferol, 807 Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin (CCKPZ), 464 Cholera, 1729 Choloepus hoffmanni, 72 Chomsky, Noam, 930 Chondrichthyes, 42, 469, 1241, 1487 Chondrification, 1729 Chondrin, 468 Chondroblasts, 468 Chondrocytes, 134 Chondrostei, 595 Chordae tendinae, 218, 743 Chordates, 38, 466, 1240, 1729; brain, 143; lower, 205-209, 1744; prehistoric, 1320 Chorion, 1250, 1729 Chorionic gonadotropin, 463 Chorionic gonadotropin, 1251 Choughs, 1156 Chromatin, 180 Chromatophores, 1504, 1729 Chromophore, 522 Chromosome diminution, 333 Chromosomes, 181, 441, 666, 754, 805, 1216, 1239, 1391, 1484, 1729; mutations and, 1103 Chronobiology, 1424 Chuckwallas, 474, 961 Chyme, 345, 351 Cicadas; ears, 399 Ciconiiformes, 125 Cilia, 737, 963, 1145, 1331 Ciliated, 1729 Ciliates, 1332 Ciliophora, 889, 1332 Cinereous vultures, 1660 Circadian rhythms, 1038, 1422, 1509, 1729 Circaetinae, 395 Circaetus gallicus, 395 Circalunar rhythms, 1423 Circannual rhythms, 1423 Circateus, 733 Circatidal rhythms, 1423 Circular muscle, 1729 Circulatory, 210-219 Circulatory systems, 1416 Circulatory systems, 35; aging and, 14; digestive systems   and, 343; echinoderms, 406; insects, 873; invertebrates, 76, 210, 215; life spans and, 951;   spiders, 1533; thermoregulation and, 1664; vertebrates, 216, 219; white sharks, 1688 Circus, 732 Circuses, 380 Cistrons, 1102 Citellu tridecemlineatus, 676 Citellus tereticaudus, 474 Civets, 166, 527, 562 Clade, 1729 Cladistics, 208, 928, 1729 Clams, 220-222, 1048, 1551; beaches, 1606; hypoxia and, 1404; nervous systems, 142 Clangula hyemalis, 391 Clariid catfish, 524 Clasper, 1729 Claspers, 591, 1018, 1488, 1679, 1688 Class, 1729 Classification, 1238, 1325, 1564, 1709, 1729; Agassiz, Louis, 1565;   Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc de, 493; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 496;   Linnaean system, 1567; Ray, John, 1570 Clavicle, 1729 Claws, 223-226, 314; Allosaurus, 17; anteaters, 71; cats, 171;   flies, 606; hawks, 731; lobsters, 301; sloths, 72; velociraptors, 1640; woodpeckers, 1702 Claws, nails, and hooves; endoskeletons and, 467 Cleaning symbiosis, 1559 Cleavage, 227, 231, 331, 441, 705, 1729 Cleidoic egg, 1729 Cleidoic eggs, 1395 Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry, Utah, 16 Clever Hans (horse), 886 Click beetles, 106 Climate and paleoecology, 1195 Clines, 232-235, 1729 Clitoris, 1386, 1484 Cloaca, 1729 Cloacal kiss, 277, 1018 Clock sense, 1729 Clone, 1729 Cloning, 334, 668; extinct, 236-239; extinct or endangered   species, 111, 236, 239; hormones and, 808; parthenogenesis as, 1215 Closed circulation, 1729 Closed circulatory systems, 211 Clotting agents, 1262 Clouded leopards, 170, 946 Clown fish, 1559 Clutch, 1730 Cnemidophorus, 961 Cnidaria, 892 Cnidarians, 39, 79, 832, 890, 1081, 1615, 1713 Cnidoblasts, 902 Cnidocyte, 1730 Cnidospora, 1332 Coalitions, 1730 Coatimundis, 550, 578, 1347, 1349 Cobras, 537, 1264, 1582; king, 1523 Coccine cells, 1082 Cochlea, 401, 403, 738, 1730 Cockatoos, 1212 Cockroaches, 240-242; antennae, 48; ears, 400; hormones, 801; regeneration, 1365 Coelacanths, 506, 595 Coelenterates, 280, 1081, 1586 Coelenteron, 832, 1730 Coelom, 349, 833, 1706, 1730 Coelomic fluid, 833 Coelophysis, 355 Coelurosauravus, 1698 Coenzymes, 1149 Coevolution, 5, 243-248, 1254, 1730; bees and flowers, 254; defense   mechanisms, 317; ecology and, 417; senseory systems, 1476; symbiosis and, 1559 Cognition, 885, 1730; language and, 930 Cognitive ethology, 885, 1730 Cohen, Stanley, 668 Coho salmon, 1443 Cohort, 1730 Cohorts, 321 Cold-blooded animals, 249-251, 1730 Cold-blooded animals, 5, 27, 249, 251, 1228, 1600, 1663 Coleoptera, 876 Coliiformes, 126 Collagen, 136, 467, 812, 834, 1453, 1503, 1730 Collar cells, 860 Collembola, 530, 1730 Collier, G., 268 Colligative properties, 1170 Colobinae, 1056 Colonial theory, 1082 Colonies, 1730; ants, 865; coral, 892; hornets, 1666; meerkats, 1021; termites, 1591 Color vision, 523, 1651 Coloration, 159; agouti, 159; aposematic, 162, 315, 317, 366, 1305;   camouflage and, 160; cats, 173; cryptic, 159; cuttlefish, 1152; desert animals, 566;   exoskeletons, 501; feathers, 582; flamingos, 600; giraffes, 670; grizzly bears, 690;   hair, 642; horses, 817; hummingbirds, 830; insects, 877; leopards, 946; lizards, 960;   marine animals, 998; molting and, 1054; octopuses, 1151; owls, 1183; parrots, 1213;   penguins, 1222; peppered moths and natural selection, 1106; seahorses, 1463; skin and, 1504;   squid, 1151; thermoregulation and, 1025, 1601; tigers, 1610; zebras, 817 Colostrum, 916, 1730 Colubrids, 1263 Columbia livia, 1634 Columbiformes, 126 Columella, 739 Combs, chicken, 198 Commensalism, 245, 1558, 1730 Commissures, 1121 Commitment, 332, 1730 Communal nesting; dinosaurs, 752 Communal nesting, 699, 1127, 1177 Communication, 48, 252-258, 881; animals, 932; ants, 51; bees, 254; bioluminescnce, 120;   courtship, 283; crabs, 302; cuttlefish, 1152; displays, 366; dogs, 371; elephant   seals, 431; elephants, 435, 1658; emotions and, 445; giraffes, 671; grasshoppers, 684;   grooming and, 693; groups and, 700; hearing and, 737; insect societies, 865; insects, 399;   koalas, 913; language and, 930; monkeys, 1056; octopuses, 160; parrots, 1213; pheromones and, 1235;   seals, 1467; sharks, 1488; smell and, 1515; termites, 1589; vision   and, 1650; vocalizations and, 1654; whales, 1683 Communities, 114, 244, 259-264, 1730; biodiversity and, 617; ecological   niches and, 412; ecosystems and, 422; fission-fusion, 201; food chains and, 614;   habitats and, 710; hydrothermal vents and, 1002; lentic and lotic, 711; pheromones and, 1232 Compact bone, 468, 1730 Comparative anatomy, 11, 1730 Comparative psychology, 1730 Compartmentalization; communities and, 260 Competition, 259, 265-270, 314, 477, 487, 1557, 1730; cannibalism   and, 163; communities and, 260; digestion and, 346; ecological niches and, 410;   ecology and, 417; environment and, 233; hierarchies and, 765; hyraxes, 840; infanticide   and, 856; lactation and, 915; marsupials and, 1014; migration and, 1037; monkeys, 1056;   multicellularity, 1080; nocturnal animals and, 1135; predation and, 1306; reproduction and,   1374, 1478; speciation and, 1341; territoriality and, 1127, 1593 Competition exclusion law of ecology, 410 Complete tetanus, 1095 Compound eyes, 520, 1652, 1730 Concentration, 909 Concentration deposits; fossils, 631 Concentricycloidea, 408 Conches, 1518 Conditioning, 937, 1730; imprinting and, 853; stimulus and response, 937 Condors, 453, 1660 Conduction fibers, 742 Condylocardia, 220 Cone mosaic, 1653 Cones, 522, 1651; oil droplets in, 522 Confusion effect, 699 Congenital diseases, 364 Coniferous forests. See Forests, coniferous Conjugation, 1016, 1331, 1477 Connective cells, 182 Connective tissue, 467, 1502, 1730 Connochaetes, 44, 979 Conservation biology; population analysis and, 1277 Conservation deposits; fossils, 631 Conservation and wildlife management, 1691 Conservation biology, 107, 110, 236, 1110 Consilience, 869 Consort pair, 1730 Consortships, 1192 Conspecific, 1730 Constriction, 1730 Consumer food chain, 1730 Consumers, 259, 409, 418, 424, 615, 618, 1079, 1253, 1333, 1471, 1730 Contact zones, 661 Continental drift, 1730 Continental drift and extinction, 506 Contingidae, 1125 Continuous evolution, 1339, 1343 Continuous feeders, 343 Continuous growth, 1730 Continuous populations, 1275 Contractile molecules, 1087 Contractile vacuoles, 909, 1331, 1731 Contraction, heart, 741 Controlling site, 1731 Controlling sites; genes, 1102 Conus arteriosus, 742 Convection, 1731 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 536 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 453, 900, 947 Convergent, 271-276 Convergent evolution, 271, 276, 1731; eels, 428; finches, 1525;   fins and flippers, 589; lungfishes, 595; marsupials and, 1011; owls and hawks, 1182 Cook, James, 539 Cooper's hawks, 732 Cooperation and hierarchies, 767 Cooperative breeding; nesting and, 1127; offspring care and, 1157 Cooperative hunting, 1189 Copal, 1199 Copepods, 995, 1001, 1713 Copper; respiration and, 1414 Copperhead snakes, 1263 Copulation, 277-279, 586, 1018, 1380, 1731; courtship and, 283;   echidnas, 279; grooming and, 696; mating and, 1017; reproduction and, 1374 Coraciiformes, 126 Coracoid bar, 592 Coral, 79, 280-282, 892, 1560; extinction, 514; groups and, 702; mutualism   and, 1254; reefs, 1354 Coral reef fish; hermaphrodites, 755; territoriality and gender, 1594 Coral snakes, 1263 Corbett, Laurie, 543 Core temperature, 1731 Cornea, 521, 1652 Corona radiata, 1731 Corpora allata, 458, 1031, 1731 Corpora cardiaca, 458 Corpus luteum, 649, 916, 1311, 1386, 1731 Corpus striatum, 144 Correlational analysis, 1382 Cortex, 1731 Corticosterone, 462, 800, 1425 Corticotropin-releasing hormone, 462 Cortisol, 462-463, 806, 916 Corvus corax, 328 Cosmine, 1454 Costa's hummingbirds, 329 Costal grooves, 1731 Coteries, 979 Cottonmouth snakes, 1263 Cougars, 170, 450, 1073 Countercurrent exchanger, 1731 Countercurrent flow in respiration, 653 Countercurrent mechanism, 1731 Countershading, 159, 1731 Countersinging, 255 Courtenay-Latimer, Marjorie, 506 Courtship, 5, 283-287, 1479; amphibian, 27; behavior, 798;   birds, 123; competition and, 266; displays, 89, 367; ducks, 389; groups and, 698;   isolating mechanisms and, 896; mating and, 1016; nesting and, 1126; owls, 1185;   robins, 1191; tails and, 1575 Coverts, 1731 Cowper's glands, 1392 Cows. See Cattle Coydogs, 373 Coyotes, 328, 370-374, 450, 687, 980, 1637 Coypus, 580 Crab-eating raccoon, 1348 Crabs, 288-291, 302; adaptations to low oxygen, 1403; blue, 303;   brain, 142; circulatory systems, 214; claws, 225; exoskeletons, 500; fiddler, 303;   gills, 973; hermit, 302; sand, 303; tails, 1575 Crabs, horseshoe. See Horseshoe crabs Craighead, Frank, 1282 Craighead, John, 1282 Cranes, 125, 292-294, 453 Cranial nerves, 1119 Craniates, 467 Crassostrea virginica, 220 Crawling, 965 Crayfish, 48, 301-302 Crepuscular, 1731 Crepuscular animals, 1422 Crest, 1731 Crested basilisk lizards, 552 Crested eagles, 395 Crested iguanas, 570 Cretaceous mass extinction, 508 Creutzfeld-Jacob disease, 363 Crick, Francis, 667 Crickets; communication, 255; ears, 399 Crinoidea, 406 Critical period, 1731 Critical periods, 851, 938 Crocodiles, 295-299, 453, 922, 1396, 1551; Africa, 527; Asia, 537;   Australia, 542; Caribbean, 547; courtship, 285; ears, 402; thermoregulation, 251; vocalizations, 1655 Crocodilia, 295 Crocodilus, 295 Crocodylia, 1396 Crocodylidae, 295 Crocodylinae, 295 Crocodylus niloticus, 298 Crocodylus porosus, 297 Crocuta crocuta, 856 Cro-Magnon man, 824 Cro-Magnon man, 792 Crop, 343, 351, 1731 Cross-pollination, 1731 Crossbills, 1525; beaks and bills, 91; competition among, 268 Crossbridge, 1731 Crosscurrent flow in respiration, 653 Crossed extensor reflex, 1358 Crossopterygii, 594 Crotalus, 328 Crotaphytus, 328 Crown, 1581, 1731 Crown-of-thorns starfish, 1542 Crows, tool use, 1613 Crustaceans, 40, 75, 288, 300-303, 890, 995, 1497, 1731; beaches, 1606;   brain, 142; claws, 225; locomotion, 963; molting hormones, 458; regeneration, 1364 Crypsis, 159 Cryptic coloration, 1731 Cryptobranchidae, 30 Cryptocercus punctulatus, 241 Ctenoid scales, 1454, 1731 Ctenophora, 1713 Cuckold, 1731 Cuckoos, 126, 1156; vocalizations, 1656 Cuculiformes, 126 Cud, 351, 1436, 1731 Cuicidae, 1070 Cultural history and evolution, 495 Cultural learning, 939 Cumulus oophorus, 586 Cuneate nuclei, 1121 Currents; beaches and, 1606 Cuspid, 1731 Cusps; valves, 743 Cuticle, 1029, 1052, 1503, 1731 Cuttlefish, 1152, 1731 Cuvier, Georges, 492, 505, 516, 628, 1565, 1710 Cyanobacteria, 1195 Cyanosis, 1505 Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 461 Cycloid scales, 1454, 1731 Cyclopes didactylus, 71 Cyclorrapha, 606 Cyclostomes, 925, 1731 Cyclura, 548 Cygnets, 1555 Cynocephalus baboons, 82 Cynomys ludovicianus, 979 Cyst, 1732 Cytochrome c, 1131 Cytodifferentiation, 332 Cytokines, 847 Cytology, 182 Cytopathogenic infections, 363 Cytoplasm, 130, 179, 237, 332, 441, 647, 1732 Cytosine (C), 1099 Cytostome, 889, 1332 Cytotoxic T cells (TC), 847 D Da Vinci, Leonardo, 1710. See Leonardo da Vinci Dalmatian pelicans, 1221 Damaliscus pygarus, 46 Dancing; arctic foxes, 286; bees, 254, 480, 867; cranes, 293;   scorpions, 1461; seahorses, 1464; squat dance, 585 Danio rerio, 667 Daphnia, 1550 Dart, Robert, 783 Darters, snail, 453 Darwin, Charles, 115, 442, 492, 1108, 1710; Agassiz, Louis, and, 1565;   animal emotions, 445; animal intelligence, 885; coevolution, 1254; description of   habituation, 717; ethology, 480; extinction, 505; fossils and evolutionary theory, 629;   human evolution, 782, 826; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, and, 496; Principle   of Antithesis, 367; theory of adaptation, 5; theory of divergent evolution, 272;   theory of evolution, 487; theory of natural selection, 8, 416, 1106; theory of sexual selection, 1374 Darwinism, 1732 Darwin's finches, 6, 9, 90, 127, 272, 560, 1107, 1525 Dassies, 840 Dasyatidae, 1489 Dasyatids, 1264 Dasypus, 72 Dasypus novemcinctus, 72 Dasyuridae, 1578 Davidson, Iain, 931 Davis, Michael, 719 Dawkins, Richard, 1286 Dawkins, W. Boyd, 782 DDT, 109; biological magnification and, 616; effect on   pelicans, 1221; endangered species and, 450; pollution, 1271 De novo condensations, 1066 Dead Sea, Israel, 920 Death, 304-307, 320, 705, 1732; aging and, 13; elephants, 436; life   spans, 949; population growth and, 1292 Death rates, 1275, 1292 Decapods, 288, 1732 Deciduous forests. See Forests, deciduous Decomposers, 259, 409, 418, 423-424, 615, 1732; zooplankton, 995 DeCoursey, Patricia, 1423 Deep sea, 1732 Deep-sea animals, 119, 308-310; eels, 429; eyes, 522; giant squid, 1152 Deer, 311-313, 625, 1062, 1629; clones, 238; coniferous forests   and, 623; farming, 382; reindeer, 1370 Deer tigers, 1073 Deevey, Edward S., 322 Defecation and osmoregulation, 1171 Defense mechanisms; fins, 591; porcupines, 645 Defense mechanisms, 5, 153, 314-319; antelope, 45;   bioluminescence, 120; elephants, 434; fossil ape teeth, 59; frogs and toads, 638;   giraffes, 670; grasshoppers, 683; groups and, 700; hair raising, 1504; horns and   antlers, 811; insects, 877; mustelids, 1674; octopuses, 1151; opossums, 1164; predation   and, 1305; reefs, 1354; salamanders, 1440; skunks, 1506; tails, 1573; territoriality and,   1593; tool use and, 1612; tusks, 1581; venom, 1262; zebras, 818 Defenses and the immune system, 845 Defensins, 1503 Defensive associations, 317 Definitive host, 1732 Degenerative diseases, 365 Dehydration, 1216, 1672 Deinonychus, 1639-1640 Delamination, 442 Delayed implantation, 477 Delayed implantation, 94, 691, 905, 1180, 1209, 1251, 1313, 1732 Delphinapterus leucas, 376, 378 Delphinidae, 376 Delphinus delphis, 376, 378 Deltas, 1607 De Mairan, Jean Jacques d'Ortous, 1424 Demes, 232, 1732; gene flow and, 661 Demographics, 320-325, 1275; ecology and, 416 Demospongiae, 1535 Dendroaspis, 1522 Dendrobatidae, 31 Dendroclimatology, 1732 Dendrocygnini, 391 Dendrohyraxes, 840 Denning, 690, 1732 Dens, 772 Density, 1732 Density-dependent growth, 1732 Density-dependent population regulation, 1732 Dental battery, 1732 Dental comb, 1732 Dental formula, 1732 Dentin, 1584 Dentine, 1453, 1732 Dentition, 1732 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 180, 333, 778, 782, 824, 1099,   1238, 1732; gene flow and, 662; Neanderthals, 1116; neutral mutations and, 1129;   phylogeny and, 1241; regeneration and, 1365 Deoxyribose, 1148 Department of Agriculture, U.S., 149 Department of the Interior, U.S., 450 Dermatophytes, 363 Dermis, 1453, 1502, 1732 Dermochelyidae, 1623 Dermochelys coriacea, 1623 Descartes, René, 1360 Descriptive ecology, 418 Desert cockroaches, 241 Desert coyotes, 328 Desert tortoises, 474 Deserts, 5, 326-330, 566-567, 711; camels, 158; Sahara, 526 Despotism, 765 Determination, 331, 336, 1732; homeosis and, 776; regeneration and, 1365 Deterrent pheromones, 1233 Detritus feeders, 1732 Deuterostomes, 1732 Development, 704, 1106; anatomy, 34; embryology, 440; ethology and, 481;   evolutionary, 337-341; evolutionary perspective, 337, 341; invertebrates, 456; sexual, 1483, 1486 Developmental biology, 117, 707 Developmental diseases, 364 Developmental genetics, 1285 Devilfish, 1489 Devonian mass extinction, 508 Dewlap, 1732 Diabetes mellitus, 806 Diapause, 1030, 1732. See Delayed implantation; estivation and, 473 Diaphragm and respiration, 1415 Diapsida, 1396 Diapsids, 1732 Diastole, 217, 741, 1732 Dickerman, Carolyn, 1256 Dictyoptera, 1301 Didelphidae, 1011, 1163 Didelphis marsupialis, 1011 Diel vertical migration, 1001, 1714 Diencephalon, 143 Diet and life spans, 951 Differentiated cells, 181 Differentiation, 130, 227, 331, 336, 441, 705, 1065, 1732; hormones and, 804; regeneration and, 1365 Diffusion, 651, 1413, 1733; circulatory systems versus, 210 Digenea, 604 Digestion, 342-347; carnivores, 246; endocrine systems and, 464; gastric   juice, 100; gastroliths and, 1448; ruminants, 1436; ruminants and   methane, 1437; thermoregulation and, 1602 Digestive tract, 35, 348-353, 1160, 1243; bacteria and, 362; cells, 182;   frogs, 638; growth of, 705; horses, 815; insects, 873; ruminants, 1436; snakes, 1520;   ungulates, 1629; water balance and, 1671 Digit, 1733 Digit (gorilla), 681 Digitigrade, 1733 Digitigrade locomotion, 966 Dihydrotestosterone, 1485 Dik-diks, 44, 979 Dilution effect, 699, 750 Dilution effects, 1733 Dima (mammoth), 989 Dimers, 846 Dimorphism, 1733 Dingoes, 382, 539, 1733 Dinoflagellates, 1332, 1560 Dinosaur tracks, 632 Dinosaurs, 16, 54, 68, 138, 354-359, 722, 1320, 1396, 1544; birds   and, 611; convergent and divergent evolution, 273; evolution, 487; extinction, 236, 448,   508, 514, 1195, 1240; herds, 752; pterosaurs and, 1336; sauropods, 1446; thermoregulation, 1603;   Triceratops, 1616; Tyrannosaurus, 1626; velociraptors, 1639 Dioecious, 1733 Dioecious animals, 646 Dioxin, 1272 Diphyllobothrium latum, 1558 Diploblastic body plan, 1083 Diplodocus, 355, 1447 Diploid, 1733 Diploid organisms, 1240 Diplopoda, 186 Diplosomite, 1733 Dipneusti, 594 Diprotodon, 1015 Diptera, 606, 1070 Directional selection, 1107 Dirofilaria immitis, 1434 Disasters and communities, 261 Discoglossidae, 31 Discontinuity theory of human language origins, 930 Discontinuous feeders, 343 Discrete growth, 1733 Discrete populations, 1275 Discrete signals, 1733 Diseases, 360-365; aging and, 13; autoimmune, 846; death and, 305;   endangered species and, 448; foot and mouth disease, 306; mosquitoes and, 1072;   rodents and, 1431; scavengers and, 1456; sleeping sickness, 528; urban and suburban   wildlife and, 1637; vectors, 876; veterinary medicine and, 1645;   wildlife management and, 1692 Dishabituation, 717 Disharmonic, 1733 Disjunct, 1733 Disks, 1643 Dispersal, 1036, 1733 Disphotic zone, 994 Displays, 122, 252, 266, 366-369, 1478, 1733; courtship and, 369; emotions   and, 444; grooming as, 693; groups and, 699; hawks, 733; horns and antlers, 811; mating   and, 1018; pair-bonding and, 1193; pseudoscorpions, 284; tails and, 1575; territoriality   and, 1593; vision and, 1650; vocalizations and, 1654 Dispsosaurus dorsalis, 328 Disruptive coloration, 1733 Disruptive selection, 1107 Distal, 1733 Distemper, 1733 Disturbance in ecosystems, 426 Diurnal, 1733 Diurnal animals, 1422 Divergence, 1733 Divergent evolution, 271, 276 Diversity, 1733 Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 495, 894 Dodo birds, 615 Dog salmon, 1443 Dogs, 147, 370-374, 1451; African hunting, 980; aging, 13;   carnivores, 166; conditioned learning, 937; domestication, 382; dreams, 1510; estrus, 477;   foxes and, 634; groups and hunting, 701; military, 1648; Tasmanian devils and, 1578;   urban and suburban wildlife, 1635 Dolly (sheep), 668 Dolphins, 375, 379, 1684; convergent evolution, 274; echolocation, 402, 1615;   emotions, 446; flippers, 592; ichthyosaurs and, 843 Domestication, 147, 380-384, 1733; breeding and, 149; cattle, 175;   dogs, 370; elephants, 434; fowl, 197; genetics and, 664; goats, 673; horses, 816;   hybridization, 235; pigs, 1246; reindeer, 1370; ruminants, 1436; sheep, 1493; sheep and   wool, 643; veterinary medicine and, 1645 Dominance, 1733; pecking orders and, 766 Dominance and food, 767 Dominance hierarchies, 765, 1187, 1733 Dominance social behavior, 1733 Dominant, 1733 Dominant species, 260, 488, 1733 Doñana National Park, Spain, 555 Donkeys, 383, 385-387, 748, 1631 Dopamine, 446, 1733 Dormancy, 762 Dorsal, 1733 Dorsobronchi, 1408 Double helix, 667 Doves, 126; ring, 798 Downy woodpeckers, 1127, 1703 Draco, 961 Dracunculus medinensis, 1561 Drag, 966, 1734 Dragonflies, 328, 1550 Dreams; animals and, 1510 Dreissna polymorpha, 1051 Drepanidinae, 1525 Dromaeosaurs, 1639 Dromedaries, 156 Drone, 1734 Drosophila melanogaster, 49, 666-667, 706, 1030, 1102-1103, 1141, 1366, 1695 Drumming, 1734 Dryopithecines, 58, 783, 1734 Dryopithecus, 1326 Dual-process habituation-sensitization theory, 717 Duarte, Cidàlia, 1116 Dubois, Eugène, 784, 823 Duck_billed dinosaurs, 722, 752 Duck-billed platypuses, 1059 Ducks, 125, 383, 388-393, 1552; imprinting, 850; instincts, 881; Muscovy, 383; vocalizations, 1656 Duct, spiral, 738 Duetting, 255 Duhamel, Henri-Louis, 1424 Duikers, 44, 526, 979 Dung beetles, 106, 1456 Dung showering, 1734 Duodenum, 351, 1734 Dupes (mimicry), 1042 Dusky seaside sparrows, 453 Dwarf crocodiles, 299 Dwarf sharks, 1487 Dying, 304-307 Dynein, 964 E Eagle owls, 1182 Eagle rays, 1489 Eagles, 126, 394-398; bald, 109, 450, 735; booted, 731; golden, 328;   harpy, 731; lesser spotted, 732; monkey-eating, 536; Philippine, 735; serpent, 733;   snake, 733; white-tailed sea, 735 Ear canal, 402 Ear drum, 738 Ear flaps, 403 Eared seals, 1467 Earless seals, 1467 Ears, 399-404, 737; amphibians, 738; bats, 1136; birds, 738; clines   and, 232; crocodiles, 296; dogs, 370; elephants, 434; fish, 738; grasshoppers, 684; mammals, 738;   owls, 1183-1184; reptiles, 738; snakes, 1522; thermoregulation and, 1601; whales, 1684 Earthworms; copulation, 277; hermaphrodites, 755; hydrostatic   skeletons, 833; immune system, 845; ingestion, 861; nervous systems, 142 East Indian pigs, 1246 Easter Island; fauna, 570 Eastern oysters, 220 Eberhardt method, 1008 Eccrine gland, 1734 Ecdysis, 76, 501, 1052, 1503, 1734 Ecdysone, 457, 1030, 1053, 1366, 1734 Ecdysteroids, 458 Echidnas, 279, 571, 1059. See also Spiny anteaters Echinoderms, 41, 405-408, 891, 999, 1240, 1713; endocrine   systems, 456; hydrostatic skeletons, 834; nervous systems, 142; regeneration, 1364;   sea anemones, 79; starfish, 1541 Echinoidea, 407 Echolocation, 328, 402, 1137, 1475, 1612, 1658, 1734; bats, 86, 1136;   ears and, 402; Odontoceti, 377; whales, 1683 Eclipse (molting), 1055 Eclipse plumage, 1734 Ecological communities, 259 Ecological isolation, 895 Ecological niches, 3, 8, 271, 1076, 1734; Caribbean, 546; competition   and, 266; fish, 595; hybridization and, 234; marsupials, 1014 Ecological pyramids, 424 Ecological studies, 410; Caribbean, 547 Ecological succession, 418 Ecological theory and life spans, 953 Ecology, 107, 117, 415-421, 495, 509, 1253, 1692, 1711, 1734; competition   and, 265; demography and, 320; ecological niches, 409-414; ethology and, 480; islands, 570-571;   mathematical models, 411, 419; natural selection and, 1106; paleoecology and, 1194;   predation and, 1307; studies, 109, 114; urban and suburban wildlife, 1633 Ecomorph, 1734 Ecosystem, 1734 Ecosystems, 259, 271, 409, 422-427, 615; Arctic, 532; chaparral, 191;   coevolution and, 243; coral reefs, 41; endangered species and, 448; food chains and, 614;   forests, 627; grasslands, 687; habitats and, 710; lakes and rivers, 920; mountains, 1076;   pollution and, 1269; predation and, 1308; swamps and marshes, 1552; trophic levels and, 617 Ectoderm, 228, 333, 441, 705, 1080, 1734 Ectoparasites, 1560, 1734 Ectoplasm, 965 Ectothermic homeothermy, 1025 Ectotherms, 249, 1600, 1663, 1734 Edentates, 2, 71, 985 Ediacarans, 1081, 1575 Ediacarian fauna, 1734 Eels, 428-430, 598; migration, 1004; pelican, 308; tails, 1576 Effector, 1734 Efferent neurons, 1120 Egg polarity genes, 776 Egg tooth, 131, 1734; monotremes, 1060 Eggs, 130, 441, 646, 705, 1065, 1249, 1310, 1319, 1373, 1385,   1478, 1483, 1713; dinosaurs, 356; lizards, 958; monotremes, 1059; ostriches, 1177;   platypuses, 1259; reptiles, 1395 Egrets, 1552 Egyptian vultures, 1660 Eider ducks, 391 Ejaculation, 1392, 1734 Ejaculatory duct, 1392 Elands, 44, 526 Elanoides forficatus, 732 Elaphurus davidianus, 451 Elapids, 1263, 1582, 1734 Elasmobranch, 1734 Elasmobranchii, 1487 Eldredge, Niles, 1340 Electric fish; tails, 1576 Electric rays, 1489 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 1734 Electrolyte imbalance, 1672 Electromagnetoreceptors, 1473 Electromyography, 207 Electron transport chain, 1734 Electrophoresis, 1734 Electroreception, 1474 Electroreceptors, 737, 1488, 1734 Elephant birds, 123, 563; extinction, 450 Elephant seals, 431-433, 1467-1468; blubber, 1467; mate   competition, 1374; territoriality and, 1594 Elephant shrews, 1500 Elephants, 108, 147, 434-436, 537, 747, 1450; emotions, 446; heart   rates, 742; human conflict, 526; hyraxes and, 839; poaching, 452; population decline, 526;   tool use, 1613; tusks, 1583; understanding of death, 307; vocalizations, 1658; zoos, 1717 11-cis retinal, 522 Elf owls, 1182 Elfin forest, 191, 1734 Elk, 437-439, 625; antlers, 813; coniferous forests and, 623; herds, 752; moose, 1062 Elliptical wings, 1697 Elton, Charles, 409, 423 Elytra, 1734 Emberizidae, 1525 Embryo, 984, 1311, 1735 Embryo polarity genes, 1735 Embryology, 11, 130, 229, 334, 440-443, 495, 704, 1238, 1710, 1735 Embryonic induction, 332, 1735 Ementia, 1144 Emergent vegetation, 1735 Emigration, 1275, 1292, 1735 Emotions, 306, 444-447; brain and, 143; grooming and, 694;   octopuses, 1151; vocalizations and, 1659 Empedocles, 491 Emperor penguins, 1222 Emus, 123, 543, 1177; farming, 384 Encounter effect, 699 Encounter effects, 1735 Encystment, 1331 Endangered species; habitat destruction and, 713; in vitro fertilization   and, 587; poaching and, 452 Endangered species, 107, 150, 448-455, 1735; badgers, 1677; brown   pelicans, 1221; cats, 173; cloning, 236, 239; cranes, 293; eagles, 397; ecological   niches and, 413; elephant seals, 432; elephants, 434; Europe, 553; fur and, 644;   genetic equilibrium and, 727; gorillas, 682; hawks, 735; inbreeding, genetic drift, and, 1141;   lemurs, 943; leopards, 947; marsupials, 1011; orangutans, 1166; otters, 1677; pandas, 94, 1210;   seals, 1468; storks, 1548; swans, 1555; Tasmanian devils, 1579;   tigers, 1610; turtles, 1624; whales, 378, 1685 Endangered Species Act, 110, 304, 450, 645, 1272, 1677 Endangered Species Preservation Act (1966), 450 Endemic, 1735 Endocannibalism, 1735 Endochondrial bone, 136 Endocrine, 456-465 Endocrine glands, 805, 1735 Endocrine systems, 36, 1243, 1735; behavior and, 802; diseases   and, 364; invertebrates, 456, 460; molting, 1052; osmoregulation   and, 1172; rhythms and, 1425; vertebrates, 461, 465 Endocrinology, 800 Endocuticle, 500, 1497, 1735 Endocytosis, 859 Endoderm, 228, 333, 441, 705, 1080 Endogenous, 1735 Endolymph, 737 Endometrium, 1386, 1735 Endoparasitic, 1735 Endoplasm, 965 Endoplasmic reticulum, 181 Endoreceptors, 1473 Endoskeletons, 34, 134, 466-471, 1642, 1687, 1735; amphibians, 637;   fossilization and, 630; locomotion and, 964-965; mammals, 984; spiny, 405 Endothermic homeothermy, 1025 Endotherms, 249, 1600, 1663, 1735 Energy budgets, 416, 418, 1107; digestion and, 1160; population   size and, 424; predation and, 1306; reproduction, 1479 Energy conversion, 410 Energy pyramid, 618, 1735 Energy pyramids, 616 Energy transfer; food webs and, 616 Enterocytes, 352, 1735 Entomology, 100, 1711 Entrainment, 1735 Environment, 1735; abiotic and biotic aspects, 1253; changes   and dinosaur extinction, 356; ecology and, 415; evolution and, 489; fluctuation, 412;   fluctuation and communities, 260; instincts and, 880; language and, 932; life spans   and, 304, 951; metamorphosis and, 1028; mountains, 1077; mutations and, 1101; natural   selection and, 1106; nervous systems and, 1119; paleoecology and, 1194; pollution   effects, 1269; populations and, 1285; sense organs and, 1471; sex determination and,   1483; skin and, 1502; social organizations and, 978; speciation and, 1340; thermoregulation   and, 249; tool use and, 1612; vocalizations and, 1655; water and, 1669 Environmental change; extinction and, 508 Environmental constraints, 1735 Environmental Defense Fund, 110 Environmental hypoxia, 1401 Environmental Law Institute, 110 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 304 Enzymes, 181, 1149, 1229, 1599, 1735; digestion and, 344, 348; restriction, 668 Eohippus, 815 Eosinophil chemotactic factor, 807 Ephyra, 904 Epiblast, 229 Epicuticle, 500, 1497, 1735 Epidemics and the immune system, 847 Epidemiology and ecology, 420 Epidermal growth factor, 807 Epidermis, 1502, 1735; exoskeletons, 500 Epididymis, 1391 Epifauna, 1735 Epigenesis, 440 Epihyal, 1735 Epihyal bone, 1073 Epinephrine, 462, 802, 1025 Epipelagic zone, 994 Epiphragm, 473, 1736 Epiphysial plates, 136 Epithelia, 973 Epithelial cells, 182, 1502 Epithelio-chorial placenta, 1250 Epithelium, 652, 1736 Epitokes, 585, 1707 Epizoites, 1558 Equidae, 385, 815 Equids, 1736 Equilibrium; communities and, 261; natural selection and, 1106 Equine infectious anemia, 1647 Equus asinus, 383 Equus caballus, 383 Equus caballus przewalskii, 451 Erdmann, Mark, 506 Erect-crested penguins, 1222 Erectile tissue, 1392 Erection, 1736 Ermine, 1674 Erthyrocytes, 1414 Erythropoietin, 807 Escape responses, 1359 Escherichia coli, 362 Eschicthius robustus, 1685 Esophagus, 343, 350, 1736 Essentialism, 492, 1736 Estivation, 473-475, 1736 Estrogen, 462-463, 649, 798, 916, 1311, 1736 Estrogens; environmental, 1272; estrus and, 476 Estrus, 476-479, 1311, 1387; courtship and, 283; groups and, 698 Estrus cycle, 1736 Estuaries, 923, 1550, 1608 Estuarine zones, 994 Ethograms, 483 Ethological isolation, 895 Ethology, 21, 117, 202, 254, 480-485, 851, 880, 936, 1327,   1478, 1711, 1736; Lorenz, Konrad, 850 Ethylene oxide, 1100 Etiology, 360 Euglena, 889, 1331 Euglenozoa, 889 Eukaryotes, 486, 964, 1080, 1239, 1568, 1736 Eumetazoa, 1082 Eunice viridis, 585 Euphractus, 72 European fauna. See Fauna: Europe European moles, 1045 European sea eagles, 394 European short-toed eagles, 395 European starfish, 1542 European wild boars, 1246 Euryapsida, 842, 1396 Euryhaline, 1736 Eurypterids, 63, 503 Eusocial, 1736 Eusocial colonies, 977 Eusthenopteron, 1318 Eusuchia, 295 Eutheria, 1241, 1250 Eutrophication, 619 Evaginations; gas exchange and, 651 Everglades National Park, 584 Everglades, Florida, 1273 Evergreen forests, 620 Evolution, 117, 1108, 1139, 1736; adaptations, 3, 7; adaptive   radiation, 8, 11; Agassiz, Louis, 1565; altruism and, 20; analysis of human, 823, 828;   animal life, 103, 486-490; bison, 176; cartilaginous fish, 1491; cattle, 175; convergent, 119,   271, 276; development, 337, 341; divergent, 8, 10, 271, 276; ecology and, 415; emotions and, 446;   endoskeletons and, 466; fins, 589; flight, 611; Hardy-Weinberg law and, 725; heterochrony   and, 758; historical perspective, 491-498; homeosis and, 779; Homo, 790; humans, 1116;   infanticide and, 857; instincts and, 880; intelligence and, 886; isolating, 894-898;   isolating mechanisms, 894, 898; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 496; language and, 930;   marsupials, 1014; mutations and, 1099; natural selection and, 1106; neutral mutations and, 1129;   oxygen use and, 1404; phylogeny and, 1238; physiology and, 1244; population genetics and, 1287;   sex differences, 1482; social groups, 865; speech and, 1657; systematics and, 1568;   vertebrates, 208, 1643; vision and, 1651; Wallace, Alfred Russel, 1111 Evolutionarily stable strategy, 1736 Evolutionary biology, 495 Evolutionary change and genetics, 727 Evolutionary clocks, 1129, 1134 Evolutionary explosions. See Extinction and evolutionary explosions Evolutionary theory, 5; baboons, 83; coevolution and, 243; embryology   and, 230 Evolutionary zoology, 1736 Ewe, 1736 Ex situ, 1736 Excretory structures, 908, 911 Exocannibalism, 1736 Exocuticle, 500, 1497, 1736 Exocytosis, 457, 1496 Exogenous, 1736 Exoskeletons, 63, 314, 499-504, 1736; athropod, 75; cockroaches, 240;   coral, 280; crustaceans, 300; endoskeletons compared to, 466; horseshoe crabs, 820; insects, 874;   locomotion and, 963; metamorphosis and, 1029; molting, 1052; molting and, 1053;   muscles and, 1092; shedding, 1503; shells, 1497; spiders, 1530 Exotic species, 108, 263, 413, 420, 571, 1736; Antarctica, 531;   diplomatic gifts, 1719; endangered species and, 448; Pacific Islands, 569; zoos and, 1716 Experimental ecology, 419 Exponential growth, 1293, 1736 Extensors, 1090 External auditory meatus, 739 External fertilization, 1736 External genitals, 1736 External naris, 1144 Exteroreceptors, 1473 Extinct, 1736 Extinction, 8, 236, 505-511, 516, 617; biodiversity and, 107;   Caribbean animals, 548; carnivores, 168; cloning and, 238; communities and, 262;   dinosaurs, 356; dodo birds, 615; evolution and, 489; evolutionary explosions and, 512, 519;   geologic periods and, 1202; habitat destruction and, 713; human contribution to, 304;   ivory-billed woodpeckers, 1704; mammals, 983; mammoths, 989; poaching and, 452;   pollution and, 1269; population fluctuations and, 1279; punctuated equilibrium and, 1340;   rates, 448; Tasmanian tigers, 1014 Extirpated, 1736 Extracellular digestion, 343 Extracellular fluid, 1669, 1736 Extracellular matrix (ECM), 1065 Extrapallial space, 1498 Exxon Valdez, 305 Eyes, 520-523, 1317, 1319, 1650; crustacean, 300; dogs, 370; eye   spot, 520; hawks, 732; horseshoe crabs, 820; owls, 1184;   primates, 1324; scorpions, 1460; sleep and, 1512; spiders, 1531 F Facial disk, 1736 Facilitory interneurons, 718 Facultative anaerobes, 1331 Fahrenheit, 1736 Fairy penguins, 1222 Falco sparverius, 1636 Falconidae, 394 Falconiformes, 126, 394, 731 Falconry, 735 Falcons, 126, 394; peregrine, 109, 450 Fallopian tubes, 1386 Fangs, 1581-1585, 1737; snakes, 1523 Fast muscle, 1737 Fat and skin, 1503 Fat-tailed lemurs, 944 Fate determination, 1065 Fate map, 1737 Fate maps, 1366 Fats, 1147 Fauna; Africa, 1, 44, 82, 524-529; Antarctica, 530-531; Arctic, 532-533;   Asia, 44, 534-538; Australia, 539-545; Caribbean, 546-548; Central America, 549-552;   Europe, 553-558; Galápagos Islands, 90; Galápagos Islands, 6, 559-560; Madagascar, 450,   561-563, 943, 1326; North America, 564, 566-568; Pacific Islands,   569-574; South America, 71, 575, 577-581 Fauna Preservation Society, 451 Faunal succession, 632 Fear, 445 Feather stars, 406 Feathers, 122, 582-584, 845, 1319, 1321; ducks, 389; evolution, 68;   grooming, 693; hummingbirds, 829; molting, 1052; ostriches, 1176; penguins, 1222;   sleep and, 1509; sparrows, 1525; swans, 1554; tails and, 1573; thermoregulation   and, 1601; types, 611; vultures, 1660; wings, 1697; woodpeckers, 1702 Feces, 343, 352, 1671; lagomorphs, 1345; pheromones and, 1233 Fecundity, 322, 1737 Feedback, 1737 Feeding reflexes, 1359 Feet, 966; gastropods, 1048; hyraxes, 839; platypuses, 1259;   starfish, 1542; tube, 406, 834; turtles, 1622; woodpeckers, 1702 Felidae, 955, 1609, 1635 Feliforms, 985 Feline leukemia virus (FeLV), 362, 1647 Felis, 170, 1073 Felis catus, 383 Felis catus libyca, 383 Felis concolor, 977 Felis concolor coryi, 1075 Felis rufus, 328 Felis sylvestris lybica, 173 Female, 1737 Females and pair-bonding roles, 1193 Fenestration, 1737 Feral, 1737 Feral animals, 1635 Fermentation; ruminant digestion, 1437 Fermentation in digestion, 344 Ferrets; black-footed, 453, 687; prairie dogs and, 262 Fertilization, 130, 277, 331, 441, 585-588, 646, 705, 893, 1017,   1313, 1385, 1737; external, 27; failure, 895; internal and external, 1018; marine   animals, 1002; mollusks, 1050; worms, 1706 Fetus, 1312, 1737 Fibrocytes, 182 Fibronectin, 1066 Fibula, 1737 Fiddler crabs, 303 Field Museum, Chicago, 1627 Field observations, 1737 Fight-or-flight response, 1504 Fight-or-flight response, 445, 802 File, Sandra, 719 Filter feeding, 860 Filtration, 909, 1737 Fimbria, 1386 Fin-fold theory, 589, 1737 Finback whales, 1685 Finches, 1525-1529; tool use, 1613. See also Darwin's finches Finches, Darwin's. See Darwin's finches Fins, 589-594, 925; claspers, 278; convergent evolution, 274; false   penis, 278; flight and, 1696; ichthyosaurs, 842; rays and skates, 1489;   seahorses, 1463; sharks, 1488 Fiordland penguins, 1222 Fire; chaparral and, 192; communities and, 260; grasslands and, 686 Fire ants, 867 Fire ecology, 1737 Fireflies, 120, 876; communication and, 253 Fish, 41, 469, 566, 594-599, 996, 1317, 1551, 1642; Africa, 524;   bioluminescence, 119; birth, 132; brain, 143; Central America, 552; circulatory   systems, 217; defense mechanisms, 315; electric, 1576; Europe, 556; fangs, 1583;   flying, 1696; gills, 973; hearts, 742; herbivores, 747; omnivores, 1161; pH maintenance, 1228;   poisonous, 1264; pollution and, 1272; scales, 1453; seahorses, 1463; sharks and rays, 1487;   skin, 1502; smell, 1515; thermoregulation, 249; whale sharks, 1679; white sharks, 1687 Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S., 111, 313, 448, 1221, 1444, 1692 Fish eagles, 394 Fish lice, 1558 Fisher, R. A., 726, 1286 Fishers, 1675 Fishing owls, 1184 Fission, 1016, 1331, 1737 Fitness, 1737; natural selection and, 1106; reproductive strategies and, 1380 FitzRoy, Robert, 1108 5-bromouracil (5BU), 1100 Fixed action pattern, 1737 Fixed action patterns (FAPs), 880 Flagella, 182, 860, 963, 1331, 1536 Flagellate, 1737 Flagellate cells, 1082 Flagellum, 1737 Flame cells, 909 Flamingos, 125, 600-602, 921; ingestion, 861; nests, 773 Flap-necked chameleons, 190 Flatworms, 39, 79, 603-605, 832, 1081, 1560; copulation, 277;   ingestion, 861; nervous systems, 142 Fleas, 876 Fledgling period, 1737 Flehmen, 671, 1737; horses, 815 Flexor reflex, 1358 Flexors, 1090 Flies, 606-608; Africa, 527; antennae, 48; tsetse, 528 Flight, 122, 609-613, 965-966; bats, 86; bees, 101; evolution, 68;   feathers and, 583; flying fish, 1696; groups and, 702; hummingbirds, 829; molting   and, 1054; origin, 69; ostriches, 1176; owls, 1184; pterosaurs, 1337;   respiration and, 1407; wings and, 1695 Flippers, 589-593, 1319, 1737; manatees, 991; seals, 1466; turtles, 1622; whales, 375, 1682 Florida manatees, 991 Florida panthers, 1073 Flow and respiration, 653 Flow rates in flying, 609 Flow valve, 1654 Fluctuations, population, 1279 Fluid, 1737 Fluid feeders, 344 Fluid transport systems, 211 Fluids and gas exchange, 652 Flukes, 589, 603, 1560; diseases and, 363; whales, 375 Fluorescence, 1461 Fluorine dating, 11 Flying lizards, 961 Flying fish, 612, 1696 Flying foxes, 543, 562 Flying squirrels, 1127; rhythms, 1423; tails, 1574 Flyway, 1737 Flyways, 659 Focal length, 520 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 462, 649, 805, 1385, 1390 Follicles, 1386, 1737; hair, 643 Food; courtship and, 369; herds and, 750; packs and, 1187 Food chains, 259, 423, 614-619, 863, 1253, 1714, 1737; eagles, 397;   endangered species and, 449; herbivores and, 748; lakes and rivers, 922; protozoa   and, 1333; ruminants, 1436; snails, 1518 Food pyramids, 409, 1737 Food supply; social organizations and, 978 Food webs, 259, 418, 423, 614-619, 1253, 1737; Antarctica, 531;   marine, 1001; predation and, 1306 Foot and mouth disease, 306 Foraging; groups and, 701 Foraminifers, 1333 Forbes, Edward, 308 Forbes, Stephen Alfred, 422 Forebrain, 143, 1120 Forel, Auguste Henri, 1422 Forensic entomology, 877 Foreshore, 1605 Forest fire beetles, 1475 Forest Service, U.S., 1692 Forest zones, 1351 Forests; coniferous, 564, 620-623, 711; deciduous, 566, 624-627, 711;   kelp, 1003; rain, 1350-1353 Fossas, 562 Fossey, Dian, 679, 681 Fossil fuels, 1270 Fossils, 628-633, 1080, 1238, 1316, 1737; amphibians, 27-29; antelope, 45;   armadillos, 74; arthropod, 77; birds, 127; bones, 135; cats, 170; chordates, lower, 208;   cockroaches, 240; convergent and divergent evolution, 272, 274; Cuvier, Georges, 516;   dinosaurs, 356; evolution and, 6, 10, 486, 489, 1341; exoskeletons and, 503; extinction, 515;   higher primates, 57; hominid, 824; hominids, 790; ichthyosaurs, 842; insects, 1695;   Lagerstätten, 631; lampreys and hagfish, 925; lungfish, 970; marsupials, 1014; molecular   clocks and, 1130; monotremes, 1059; opossums, 1163; paleoecology and, 1194; paleontology   and, 1199; phylogeny and, 1240; primates, 1327; pterosaurs, 1336; reptiles, 1395;   rhinoceroses, 1419; sponges, 1535; termites, 1589; Tyrannosaurus, 1626; whales, 1575 Founder effects, 1140 Four-chambered heart, 983 Four-fin system, 1738 Foutes, Roger, 934 Fovea, 521, 1652, 1738 Fox squirrels, 1127, 1538 Foxes, 634-636, 687, 1637; arctic, 534; Australia, 539; defense   mechanisms, 315; red, 980; South America, 578 Foxes, flying. See Flying foxes Franklin, Rosalind, 667 Fraticide, 1738 Free-living, 1738 Free-running, 1738 French, Victor, 1367 Frenulum, 1738 Frequencies in sound waves, 739 Frequency, 1738 Frequency-dependent predation, 1738 Freud, Sigmund, 853 Fricke, Hans, 506 Friction and flight, 610 Frill, 1738 Fringillidae, 1525 Fringillinae, 1525 Fringing reefs, 892, 1355 Frisch, Karl von, 254, 480, 850, 867, 880, 939 Frogs, 30-31, 637-641, 1552, 1642; bullfrogs, 328; Caribbean, 547;   Central America, 552; clines and grass frogs, 233; courtship, 284; ears, 400; estivation, 474;   gas exchange, 1416; hairy, 527; leopard, 233; Madagascar, 562; poisonous, 1265;   pollution and, 1272; reproduction, 640; skin, 1503; taxonomy, 31; vocalizations, 1656 Front presentation, 131 Frontal bone, 1738 Frozen zoo, 1738 Frozen zoos, 239 Fruit bats, 571 Fruit flies, 667, 1030, 1102, 1141, 1695; genetics and, 666; homeosis   in, 776; regeneration, 1366. See also Drosophila melangogaster Fugitive species, 1305 Functional response, 1305, 1738 Fungi, 363, 1080 Fungus gnats, 120 Funnel, 1738 Funnel web spiders, 65 Fur, 642-645, 845; beavers, 97; grooming, 693; howler monkeys, 551;   koalas, 912; mink, 1677; monotremes, 1060; mustelids, 1674; otters, 1179; polar   bears, 1266; shedding, 1052; sleep and, 1509; thermoregulation and, 566, 1601, 1664 Fur seals, 1468 Furcula, 1738 Furnarius, 1125 Fushi tarazu, 778 Fusion-fission community, 1738 G Gaboon vipers, 1264 Gaia, 243 Galagos, 527 Galápagos Island fauna. See Fauna: Galápagos Islands Galápagos penguins, 1222 Galápagos Rift Zone, 997 Galápagos tortoises, 559 Galdikas, Biruté, 1168 Galen, 1360, 1709 Galeocerdo cuvieri, 1488 Gallbladder, 351 Galliformes, 126 Gallus gallus, 383 Galton, Francis, 380 Game, 1738 Game management, 1690 Game theory, 1596 Gametes, 130, 585, 1016, 1331, 1373, 1385, 1478, 1738 Gametogenesis, 441, 646-650, 665 Gamma interferon, 1131 Gamma rays, 1101 Ganges dolphins, 376, 378 Ganglia, 143, 1706 Ganoid scales, 1453, 1738 Ganoine, 1454 Gap genes, 777 Gap junctions, 1096 Gap rule genes, 1738 Garden snails, 1518 Gardner, Allen, 933 Gardner, Beatrice, 933 Garrod, Archibald, 1100 Gars, 1453 Garstang, Walter, 339 Gas exchange, 651-656, 972, 1416; birds, 1408; protozoa, 1331;   respiratory system and, 1413; water balance and, 1670 Gastric inhibitory polypeptide, 464 Gastrin, 464 Gastroliths, 55, 1448, 1545, 1738 Gastronomic, 1738 Gastropods, 1048, 1498; snails, 1517 Gastrovascular cavity, 349 Gastrula, 1738 Gastrulation, 227, 231, 441, 705, 1738 Gaurs, 237, 538 Gavialidae, 295 Gavials, 295, 537. See also Gharials Gaviiformes, 125 Gazelles, 44, 1450 Geckos, 80, 961; flying, 1698 Geese, 125, 383, 388, 657-659, 1552; emotions, 446; ethology   and, 481; hierarchies, 767; imprinting, 850; snow, 1139 Geikie, James, 782 Gelada baboons, 1189 Gelding, 1738 Gemmule, 1738 Gemsboks, 45 Gender and territoriality, 1594 Gene amplification, 333 Gene control and hormones, 808 Gene flow, 10, 232, 660-663, 1738 Gene migration, 234 Gene pools, 10, 1738; habitats and, 709 Gene therapy, 668 Generalized, 1738 Generations, 1275 Genes, 180, 1331, 1477, 1710, 1738; differentiation and, 332; enzymes   and, 1101; homeosis and, 776; hormones and, 805; life spans and, 304; regulation, 1102;   regulatory, 339; sexual development and, 754 Genetic code, 1738 Genetic diversity, 1738 Genetic drift, 727, 824, 1106, 1139, 1143, 1287, 1739; population fluctuations and, 1283 Genetic engineering; natural selection and, 1110 Genetic selection; domestication and, 380 Genetic variability, 1480; mutations and, 1141 Genetics, 117, 149, 664-669, 725, 794, 1099, 1711; behavior and, 798;   birds, 128; diversity, 587; ethology and, 481; evolution, 487, 660; extinction and, 507;   Hardy-Weinberg law of genetic equilibrium, 725, 730; homeosis and, 776; instincts   and, 881; learning and, 939; mating and, 1017; natural selection   and, 1106; populations, 1285; regeneration and, 1367; reproduction, 21 Genets, 527 Genital swelling, 476 Genital tubercle, 1484, 1739 Genitalia, 1739 Genome, 333, 1739 Genotype, 1739 Genotype frequency, 1739 Gentoo penguins, 1222 Gentry, Roger L., 477 Genus, 1239, 1566, 1739 Geochelone, 1622 Geochelone elephantopus, 559, 1623 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Étienne, 492 Geoffroyism, 1739 Geographically isolated, 1739 Geological periods, 1739 Geology, 509, 515 Geomyidae, 676 Geomys bursarius, 676 Geophilidae, 185 Geosaurs, 295 Geospizinae, 1525 Gerbils, 163, 1137, 1431 Germ layers, 1739 German cockroaches, 240 Gestation, 441, 1251, 1310, 1739; marsupials, 1013; reproductive strategies and, 1380 Gharials, 295, 298, 537. See also Gavials Ghost Ranch Quarry, New Mexico, 355 Giant tortoises, 1623 Giant anteaters, 71 Giant clams, 220 Giant golden moles, 1046 Giant Pacific octopuses, 1151 Giant spider crabs, 302 Giant squid, 309, 1000, 1048, 1152; tentacles, 1587 Giant White turkeys, 199 Gibbons, 537, 1326; pair-bonding, 1192 Gigantopithecus, 59 Gigantothermy, 1739 Gila monsters, 960, 1262 Gill plates, 1695 Gill rakers, 860, 1488, 1679, 1739 Gills, 594, 652, 820, 891, 925, 972-976, 1241, 1413, 1670, 1739;   amphibians, 637; arthropod, 76; circulation and, 217; development, 338; hearts and, 742;   lungfish, 969; osmoregulation and, 1171; pH maintenance and, 1228; snails, 1517 Gilt, 1739 Gir Forest Lion Sanctuary, India, 537, 956 Giraffes, 670-672, 1630, 1719 Gizzard, 198, 343, 351, 1739 Glaciations, 530 Glands, 805, 1739; lactation, 915; pheromones and, 1233; spiders, 1533 Glans, 1392 Glass lizards, 961 Glass snakes, 1573 Glass sponges, 1535-1536 Glassfish, 1558 Glaucomys volans, 1127 Gliding, 965 Glires, 986 Global extinction, 1739 Global warming, 714, 1273 Globigerina menardii, 1195 Globigerina pachyderma, 1195 Globocephala malaena, 376, 378 Gloger's rule, 233 Glomerulus, 910, 1739 Glossina, 607 Glottis, 1523 Glowworms, 120 Glucagon, 462, 806 Glucocorticoids, 462, 806 Gluconeogenesis, 462 Glucose, 1170 Gluttons, 535 Glycogen, 1148 Glycosylation, 952 Gnathobases, 820 Gnathostomata, 925, 1739 Gnus. See Wildebeests Goannas, 542 Goats, 47, 147, 382, 673-675, 1437, 1631; foot and mouth disease, 306;   wool, 643 Gobies, 595 Goff, M. Lee, 877 Golden bamboo lemurs, 943 Golden eagles, 328, 396 Golden moles, 1046 Golden-rumped shrews, 1500 Goldfinches, 1525 Goldschmidt, Richard, 340 Golgi apparatus, 181 Gombe Stream Research Centre, Tanzania, 202 Gombe Stream Reserve, Tanzania, 1327 Gonadotropin, 1739 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 649, 1390 Gonadotropins, 462 Gonads, 646, 1385, 1391, 1484, 1739; sex change and, 755 Gondwanaland, 513 Gonochorism, 1478, 1739 Gonopodia; fish, 278 Goodall, Jane, 202, 445, 720 Goose. See Geese Gophers, 676-678 Gorget, 1739 Gorgonians, 280 Gorilla Game Reserve, Uganda, 682 Gorilla gorilla, 679 Gorillas, 527, 679-682, 782, 1326; birth, 131; homes, 774;   mountain, 681 Goshawks, 731-732 Gosse, Philip H., 1718 Gould, Stephen Jay, 339, 758, 1340 Gracile, 1739 Gracile nuclei, 1121 Gradient regeneration model, 1367 Gradualism, 1339, 1739 Grammar, 931 Gran Paradiso National Park, Italy, 556 Grand Canyon National Park and Game Preserve, Arizona, 688 Grant's golden moles, 1046 Granular glands, 1739 Grass owls, 1182 Grasshoppers, 683-685; ears, 399; genetics and, 666 Grasslands, 24, 44, 566, 686-689, 711, 1450; habitat destruction, 713 Gray matter, 143, 1739 Gray squirrels, 1127, 1538 Gray whales, 1685 Gray wolves, 371 Graylings, 1443 Grazer, 1740 Grazing; herbivores and, 687; herds and, 750 Grazing lawns, 750 Great auks, 509 Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 1356 Great horned owls, 1182 Great Lakes, North America, 920, 926, 1051, 1272 Great white pelicans, 1219 Great white sharks. See White sharks Greater dwarf lemurs, 944 Grebes, 125 Green herons, 1614 Green sea turtles; migration, 1004 Greenhouse effect, 510, 1740; dinosaur extinction and, 356 Greenhouse Effect; ruminant digestion and, 1437 Gregarious, 1740 Grevy's zebras, 817 Griffin, Donald, 256, 885 Griffon vultures, 1660 Grinnel, Joseph, 409 Grizzly bears, 450, 690-692, 1620; poaching, 452 Grooming, 693-697; communication and, 252; pair-bonding and, 1193;   social, 203; tool use and, 1612 Grosbeaks, 1525 Ground squirrels, 1538 Groundhogs, 761 Groundwater, 1270 Group selection, 1109 Groups, 5, 19, 698-703, 865; altruism and, 19; baboons, 83; beavers, 96,   774; cheetahs, 195; chimpanzees, 201; cooperation and, 867; coral, 280; goats, 674;   herds and, 751; hunting and, 166; hyraxes, 839; language and, 931; lions, 172, 955;   monkeys, 1058; orangutans, 1167; pheromones and, 1233; seals, 1466; sheep, 1494; sleep   and, 1509; squirrels, 1540; urban and suburban wildlife, 1634 Grouse; competition among, 267; mate competition, 1375; willow, 534 Growth, 704-708, 1065, 1740; bones and, 135; cephalopods, 1153;   endocrine systems and, 461; exoskeletons and, 501; heterochrony and, 757; invertebrates, 456;   pollution and, 1271; regeneration and, 1365 Growth hormone, 805 Gruiformes, 125 Grunion, 1423 Guam rails, 453 Guanacos, 156, 383, 577 Guanine, 1740 Guanine (G), 1099 Guinea fowl, 383 Guinea pigs, 383 Guinea worms, 1560 Gulls, 125; instincts, 881; nesting, 1125; scavengers, 1458 Gulper, 1740 Gulpers, 308 Guppies; birth, 132; cannibalism and, 163 Guthrie, Edwin Ray, 1362 Gymnophiona, 30 Gymnosperms, 622, 1740 Gymnothorax, 430 Gynogenesis, 1217 Gypohierax angolensis, 395 Gypsy moths, 154 Gyrfalcons, 533-534 H Habitat destruction; Africa, 526; eagles, 397; Easter Island, 570;   ecological niches and, 413; Europe, 555; hawks, 735; jaguars, 901; lions, 956; Madagascar, 563;   mountain lions, 1075; mountains, 1077; pollution and, 1269, 1272; population fluctuations   and, 1283; snakes, 1524; storks, 1548; turtles, 1624 Habitat isolation, 895 Habitat loss, 109, 420, 448; Asia, 534; extinction and, 517;   leopards, 947; pandas, 1210; rain forests, 1352; wildlife management and, 1692 Habitat selection, 1740 Habitats, 107, 115, 709-715, 1633, 1740; demography and, 320; ethology   and, 481; fish, 596; management, 1690; marine, 994; marsupials, 1015; migration   and, 1036; nocturnal animals, 1135; owls, 1183; protective, 317; rain   forests, 1350; territoriality and, 1592; wings and, 1697 Habituation, 716, 721, 936; reflexes and, 1359 Hadalpelagic zone, 995 Hadogenes troglodytes, 1460 Hadrosaurs, 355, 722-724 Hadrosaurus foulkii, 722 Haeckel, Ernst, 337, 758, 1083 Haemonchus contortus, 1434 Hagenbeck's Tierpark, Germany, 1718 Hagfish, 925-929, 1317 Haikouella, 1320 Hailman, Jack, 882 Hair, 37, 642-645, 983, 1319; cells, 737; exoskeletons and, 501;   horns, 811; quills, 645, 1298; shedding, 1052 Hairy frogs, 527 Hairy woodpeckers, 1703 Halberg, Franz, 1422 Haldane, J. B. S., 726, 1286 Haliaetus albicilla, 394, 397, 735 Haliaetus leucocephalus, 394, 735 Haliaetus pelagicus, 394 Haliaetus vociferoides, 395 Haliotidae, 1518 Hall, Marshall, 1361 Hallucigenia, 1317 Hamadryas baboons, 82, 1189 Hamilton, William D., 870, 1584 Hammer (ears), 402 Hammerhead sharks, 1488 Hammerkops, 527 Hamsters, 1429 Hand, 1740 Hanuman langurs, 537 Haplodiploidy, 866, 1740 Haploid, 1740 Haplorhini, 1325 Haplosporidium nelsoni, 1174 Harbor porpoises, 376, 378 Hardin, Garrett, 688 Hardy-, 725-730 Hardy-Weinberg law of genetic equilibrium, 10, 725, 730, 1139, 1286 Hardy, Godfrey H., 725 Harem, 1740 Harems, 752, 1192; courtship and, 286; deer, 312; elephant seals, 432;   elk, 438; estrus and, 478; hermaphrodites and, 755; moose, 1064; polygyny, 1019;   reproduction and, 1375; seals and walruses, 1467; sex determination and, 1483 Hares, 1344-1346; arctic, 534 Harker, Janet, 801 Harlequin ducks, 391 Harpia, 731 Harpy eagles, 396, 731 Harpya harpyja, 396 Harriers, 394, 731 Harvestmen, 65 Harvey, Alan, 1575 Harvey, William, 1243, 1709 Hatchetfishes, 121 Hatching, 131 Hauser, Marc, 306 Havell, Robert, Jr., 124 Haversian systems, 468, 1740 Hawk-eagles, 732 Hawk owls, 1183 Hawks, 126, 731-736, 1636 Hawksbill turtles, 453 Hayflick finite doubling potential phenomenon, 950 Hearing, 85, 399, 737-740, 1473; communication and, 253; dogs, 373; estrus   and, 476; imprinting, 850; insects, 876; owls, 1184; ranges, 403; vocalizations and, 1654 Heart, 35, 741-744, 1740; aging and, 14; dinosaurs, 138; four-chambered, 217;   hibernation and, 761; invertebrate, 210; myogenic, 212, 217; neurogenic, 212; three-chambered, 217 Heartworms, 1646 Heat, 1740 Hedgehogs; estivation, 474; nesting, 1126 Hediger, Heini, 1720 Heinroth, Oskar, 881 Helicotrema, 738 Heliotherms, 1600, 1740 Heliozoa, 1497 Helix aspersa, 1518 Helper T cells (TH), 847 Hemichordata, 205 Hemimetabolous, 1740 Hemipenis, 278, 834, 958 Hemo-chorial placenta, 1250 Hemocyanin, 1403 Hemocyanins, 1414 Hemocytoblasts, 807 Hemoglobin, 742, 1131, 1409, 1414, 1505, 1740 Hemolymph, 211, 742, 1414, 1532, 1740 Hemotoxin, 1740 Hemotoxins, 1262 Hendrickson, Sue, 1627 Hepatitis viruses, 364 Herbivores, 342, 409, 615, 745-749, 986, 1148, 1160, 1436, 1450, 1740;   beavers, 97; coevolution and, 244; deer, 312; giraffes, 670; homes, 773; horns, 811;   kangaroos, 906; mollusks, 1050; offspring care, 1156; pandas, 1209; reindeer, 1370;   ungulates, 225, 1629; zooplankton, 1713 Hercules beetles, 103 Herds, 698, 750-753, 979, 1187; antelope, 44; deer, 312; dinosaur, 54;   domestication and, 380; elephants, 434; elk, 439; estrus and, 478; giraffes, 671;   hippopotamuses, 769; horses, 816; life spans and, 951; mammoths, 988;   reindeer, 1371; ungulates, 1631; zebras, 817 Heredity, 338; life spans and, 951 Heritability, 1740 Herman, Louis, 934 Hermaphrodites, 754-756, 892, 1019, 1479, 1483, 1740; birth   and, 131; crustaceans, 303; fish, 597; flatworms, 603; moray eels, 430; snails, 1518; worms, 1707 Hermatypic coral, 1740 Hermit crabs, 288, 302, 1559; defense mechanisms, 315 Herons, 1552; tool use, 1614 Herpesviruses, 364 Herpetology, 1711 Herring, 860 Hershey, Alfred, 666 Hertwig, Richard von, 254 Hesperornis, 123 Hess, Eckhard, 853 Heterocephalus glaber, 977 Heterocercal, 1740 Heterocercal tails, 591, 1576, 1687 Heterochrony, 338, 757-760, 1740; clock model, 339 Heterodonts, 1581, 1740 Heteronetta atricapilla, 389 Heterostraci, 927 Heterotrophs, 244, 615, 618, 1740; animals, 1240; competition and, 266; protozoa, 1331 Heterozygote, 1740 Heterozygote genotypes, 1139 Hexacorallia, 280 Hexactinellid sponges, 1536 Hexactinellida, 1535 Hexapod, 1740 Hibernacula, 1740 Hibernation, 5, 761-764, 1740; bats, 86; bears, 93; circannual rhythms   and, 1423; desert animals, 329; estivation and, 473; grizzly bears, 690; hormones   and, 799; humans and, 764; lemurs, 944; nutrient requirements and, 1149; squirrels, 1538;   thermoregulation and, 1600; warm-blooded animals and, 1664; wasps, 1667 Hibernation inducement trigger (HIT), 762 Hierarchies, 20, 94, 147, 267, 765-768, 1741; chimpanzees, 203;   domestication and, 380; horses, 816; packs and, 1187; territoriality and, 1594 High altitude; hypoxia and, 1402 High-lift wings, 1698 Higher insects, 1741 Hiliastur indus, 732 Hilus, 909 Hindbrain, 143, 1120 Hindgut, 343 Hinnies, 386 Hippocampus abdominalis, 1464 Hippocampus bargibanti, 1463 Hippocrates, 1709 Hippopotamus amphibius, 769 Hippopotamuses, 769-771, 923, 1630 Hipposcampus ingens, 1464 Hirudinida, 833 Histamine, 360 Histology; endoskeletons, 467 Histone H4, 1131 Histones, 333 Histrionicus histrionicus, 391 Hives, 99, 772 Hog cholera, 1646 Hog-nosed skunks, 1507 Hogs, 1246-1248 Hölldobler, Bert, 869 Holocephali, 1487 Holoplanktonic zooplankton, 1713 Holostei, 595 Holothuroidea, 407 Homarus americanus, 290, 301 Homarus gammarus, 290 Homarus vulgaris, 301 Home building, 96, 772-775; ants, 51; nesting, 1125; social insects, 868; termites, 1590 Home range, 1741 Homeobox, 778, 1741; hormones and, 808 Homeodomain protein, 778 Homeosis, 776-781, 1741 Homeostasis, 805, 908, 1229, 1473, 1599, 1710, 1741 Homeotherms, 5, 249, 1025, 1600, 1663, 1741 Homeotic genes, 1102, 1317 Homeotic selecter genes, 777 Homeotic selector genes, 1741 Homing pigeons, 1037 Hominidae, 758, 782, 823, 1326 Hominids, 57, 782-789, 1741; estrus and, 478; language and, 932; vocalizations, 1657 Hominoidea, 57 Homo, 823, 1115; evolution, 489 Homo rudolfensis, 1200 Homo erectus, 782, 791, 1200 Homo habilis, 784, 823, 1200 Homo neanderthalensis, 1115 Homo sapiens, 758; human, 790-797; human diversification and, 790, 797; language and, 930 Homocercal, 1741 Homocercal tails, 591, 595 Homodonts, 1581, 1741 Homologue, 1741 Homozygotes, 1287, 1741 Homozygous recessive condition, 665 Honest signaling, 366 Honeycreepers, 1525; beaks and bills, 89 Hoof and mouth disease. See Foot and mouth disease Hooke, Robert, 628, 1710 Hooker, Joseph, 1111 Hookworms, 1560 Hooves, 45, 223-226, 673, 1062; endoskeletons and, 467; horses, 815;   hyraxes, 839; reindeer, 1370; ungulates, 1629 Hormonal deficiency; invertebrates, 459 Hormones, 461, 1385, 1390, 1741; aging and, 13; antlers and, 813;   behavior, 798, 803; digestion and, 350; estrus and, 476; gametogenesis and, 649;   hermaphrodites, 755; invertebrates, 456; lactation and, 916; lipids and, 1149; mammals, 804-810;   molting and, 1052; osmoregulation and, 1172; pheromones and, 1233; placenta and, 1249;   pregnancy and, 463, 1311; regeneration and, 1365; sex differentiation and, 1484 Hornbills, black-and-white casqued, 857 Horned vipers, 537 Horner, Jack, 723 Hornets, 1666, 1668, 1741 Horns, 314, 673, 811-814, 1741; American pronghorns, 24;   antelope, 44; endoskeletons and, 467; giraffes, 670; herds and, 752; narwhals, 376;   rhinoceroses, 1419; sheep, 1493; Triceratops, 1616; ungulates, 1629 Horseflies, 607 Horses, 147, 688, 748, 815-819, 1631; Arabian, 537; domestication, 383;   herds, 752; lactation, 917; military, 1648 Horseshoe crabs, 820-822; shells, 1497 Hosts, 1558, 1741 House mice, 1033 House sparrows, 1525, 1634 Howler monkeys, 551 Hrdy, Sarah, 478 Hsing Hsing (panda), 238 Hua Mei (panda), 238 Hubbard Brook Project, 425 Hublin, Jean-Jacques, 1116 Huias, 90 Hull, Clark Leonard, 1362 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 526 Human-animal interactions; carnivores, 168 Human-animal interactions, 380; dogs, 373; foxes, 635; grooming, 696;   jaguars, 900; mice and rats, 1033; zoos, 1716 Human diversification. See Homo sapiens and human diversification Human evolution, 823-828 Human evolution analysis, 823, 828 Human Genome Project, 668 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 362, 848 Human origins; baboons and, 82 Humans, 1741; cannibalism and, 164; extinction and, 508 Humboldt penguins, 1222 Humboldt, Alexander von, 580 Humboldt, Alexander von, 1565 Humidity, 1741 Hummingbirds, 126, 829-831, 1256; Costa's, 329; heart rates, 742;   ingestion, 862 Humoral immunity, 1741 Humpback whales, 1685 Humpbacked salmon, 1443 Humphrey, G., 718 Humps, camel, 157 Hunting; African wildlife, 526; ducks, 392; effect on wildlife   populations, 305; endangered species and, 448; extinction and, 508; groups and, 701;   poaching, 452; wildlife preserves and, 1691; wildlife management and, 1690; zoos and, 1716 Hunting strategies; carnivores, 166; echolocation, 402 Hunting spiders, 65 Hunting strategies, 1306; cats, 172; cheetahs, 194; coevolution   and, 246; cooperation, 699; crocodiles, 298; eagles, 395; hawks, 731; humans, 796;   leopards, 946; lions, 955; mountain lions, 1073; owls, 1183; packs, 1187-1188; praying   mantis, 1301; primates, 1324; snakes, 1523; social organizations and, 980; squid, 1151; venom, 1262 Huso huso, 595 Hutchinson, G. Evelyn, 423 Hutias, 548 Huxley, J. S., 340 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 69, 442, 782, 1108 Hyaenidae, 836 Hybrid, 232-235 Hybrid swarms, 234, 895 Hybrid vigor, 1741 Hybrid vigor and mules, 386 Hybrid zones, 232, 235, 661 Hybridization; fertilization and, 586; gene flow and, 661 Hybrids, 895, 1741 Hydra, 79 Hydras; tool use, 1615 Hydration, 1216 Hydrologic cycle, 922, 1741 Hydrophiinae, 1523 Hydrostatic pressure, 1170 Hydrostatic skeletons, 212, 499, 832-835, 1091, 1706, 1741 Hydrothermal vents, 1002; fauna, 997 Hydroxyapatite, 812, 1149 Hyenas, 527, 836-838; carnivores, 166; homes, 773; infanticide   among, 856; packs, 1187; scavengers, 1457 Hygroreceptors, 1473 Hygroscopic, 1741 Hylidae, 30 Hylobatidae, 1326 Hylopatidae, 57 Hymenoptera, 20, 99, 865, 1666 Hynobildae, 30 Hyoid bones, 170, 1741 Hypercalcemia, 806 Hyperdactly, 1741 Hyperdactyly, 842 Hyperglycemia, 806 Hypermorphosis, 757, 1741 Hyperosmotic, 1741 Hyperosmotic solutions, 1171 Hyperphalangy, 1741 Hyperplasia, 363 Hyperresponsiveness, 718 Hyperstriatum, 144 Hyperventilation, 1402, 1742 Hypoblast, 229 Hypocercal tails, 591 Hypodermis, 500, 1497, 1503 Hypoosmotic, 1742 Hypoosmotic solutions, 1171 Hypophyseal hormones, 806 Hypophysectomy, 649 Hypophysis, 805, 1742 Hyposmia, 1516 Hypothalamus, 143, 461, 805, 1120, 1385, 1390, 1599, 1742 Hypothermia, 1602 Hypoxia, 1401, 1742; flight and, 1407 Hypsilophodon, 355 Hyracoidea, 1629 Hyraxes, 839-841 I Iberian lynx, 555 Ichnofossils, 631 Ichnology, 1742 Ichthyology, 1711 Ichthyornis, 123 Ichthyosaurs, 842-844, 1396; convergent evolution, 274 Ichthyostega, 1318 Ichthyostegalia, 27 Ictinateus malayensis, 396 Ictinia plumbea, 732 Iguanas, 328, 547, 961, 1397; Galápagos Islands, 559; Madagascar, 562 Iguania, 960 Iguanosaurus, 1320 Ileum, 351 Imaginal disk, 1742 Imaginal disks, 776, 1030, 1366, 1695 Immigration, 1275, 1292, 1742 Immune system, 35, 845-848; aging and, 14; diseases and, 361; lactation   and, 916; placenta, 1250 Immunization, 361 Immunodeficiency diseases, 362 Immunological memory, 361 Impalas, 44 Imprinting, 849-855, 938, 1742; ethology and, 481; Lorenz, Konrad, 850; zebras, 817 Impulse, 1742 In situ, 1742 In situ hybridization, 778, 1742 In vitro fertilization, 587 In vitro culture, 183, 335 Inbreeding, 1287, 1742; nonrandom mating and, 1140 Incisors, 1581, 1742 Inclusive fitness; ethology and, 482 Incomplete tetanus, 1095 Incubation, 130 Incus, 739 Independent assortment, law of, 666 Indian ducks, 390 Indian rhinoceroses, 1421 Indicator species, 1742 Indonesian salmon-crested cockatoos, 1214 Indris, 943 Induction and growth, 705 Inductive reasoning, 1243 Industrial melanism, 1742 Inertia, 1742 Infanticide, 83, 856-858, 1188 Infauna, 1742 Infections, 361-362 Inferior colliculi, 1120 Inflammation, 360; immune system and, 846 Information processing; nervous systems and, 1121 Infundibula, 1408 Ingestion, 35, 342, 859-864; anteaters, 71; beaks and bills, 90; pelicans, 1219 Inhibition; habituation and, 718 Inia, 843 Initial conditions, 1066 Ink; octopuses, 160 Ink, cephalopod, 1152 Innate, 1742 Inner ear, 737 Innovation and evolutionary explosions, 517 Inquilinism, 1558 Insect societies, 702; ants, 51; bees, 99; communication and, 252;   homes, 772; termites, 1589; Wilson, Edward O., 869 Insectivores, 694, 985, 1241, 1500, 1742 Insects, 40, 48, 75, 103, 152, 873-879, 1053; Africa, 527; ants, 51;   birth, 131; brain, 142; control, 2, 86; ears, 399; Edentate ancestors, 74; endocrine   systems, 458; estivation, 473; Europe, 557; exoskeletons, 500; flies, 606; flight and, 612;   Galápagos Islands, 560; grasshoppers, 683; hearts, 741; herbivores, 745; hydrostatic   skeletons, 833; invertebrates, 889; locomotion, 963; metamorphosis, 1029; muscles, 1089;   Pacific Islands, 572; pheromones and, 1234; poisonous, 1263; praying mantis, 1301;   regeneration, 1364; smell and, 1514; societies, 865-872; stink bugs, 316; tracheas, 974;   wasps, 1666; wings, 1695 Insight, 938 Insight learning, 1742 Instar, 1052 Instincts, 880-884, 1742; altruism, 19; emotions and, 445; ethology   and, 482; imprinting and, 850; insects, 876; migration and, 1004; reflexes and, 1359 Instrumental conditioning, 937 Insulin, 462, 806, 916, 1131; genetics and, 668; insects versus   vertebrates, 459 Integument, 1502; exoskeletons, 500 Integumentary processes, 1742 Intelligence, 885-888; chimpanzees, 783; cuttlefish, 1152;   elephants, 436; gorillas, 679, 682; nervous systems and, 1122; octopuses, 1151;   Odontoceti, 377; pigs, 1248; primates, 61, 1324; vertebrates, 1642; whales, 1684 Interbreeding, 271, 894, 1742; Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, 1115 Intercalated disks, 1096 Interference, 1742 Interfertile, 1742 Intermediate host, 1742 Intermolt, 1052 Internal naris, 1144 International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature, 1566 International Council for Bird Preservation, 448 International Society for the Protection of Wisent, 451 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 293,   448, 453, 1548, 1720 International Union of Biological Sciences, 1566 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 379, 1685 Interneuron, 1742 Interneurons, 1120, 1358 Interspecies nuclear transfer, 237 Interspecific competition, 265 Intersterility, 895 Interstitial cells, 1391 Interstitial fluid, 1742 Intertidal zone, 994 Intestine, 343, 350-351, 1742 Intracellular fluid, 1743 Intraspecific competition, 265, 411 Intrauterine oöphagy, 1688 Intrinsic rate of increase, 1743 Introgression, 232, 235, 1743 Introgressive demes, 234 Introgressive hybridization, 661 Inulin, 911 Invagination, 1743 Invaginations, 1414; gas exchange and, 651 Invertebrate zoology, 1711 Invertebrates, 38, 496, 889-893, 1743; bioluminescence, 119;   brains, 141; circulatory systems, 210, 215; claws, 225; ears, 399; endocrine systems, 456, 460;   exoskeletons, 499; eyes, 521-522; Madagascar, 562; mollusks, 1048; muscles, 1087, 1093;   regeneration in, 1364; squid, 1152; tracheas, 974 Involuntary, 1743 Involuntary striated muscle, 1096 Ion concentration regulation, 909 Ion regulation, 1171 Ionic concentrations, 462 Iridescent, 1743 Iridium, 508; extinction and, 513 Iridophores, 1505 Iris, 1652 Iron; respiration and, 1414 Irruption, 1743 Ischigualasto Formation, Argentina, 354 Islets of Langerhans, 806 Isogamy, 1478, 1743 Isolating mechanisms in evolution, 11, 234, 662; cheetahs, 194; mountains, 1076 Isoptera, 865 Isosmotic, 1743 Isosmotic solutions, 1170 Isozymes, 662 Isozymic variation, 1129 Isurus oxyrinchus, 1488 Iteroparous species, 1382 Ivory, 1584, 1743 Ivory-billed woodpeckers, 1704 J Jabirus, 1547 Jacana jacana, 857 Jackals, 1457 Jackdaws, 851 Jackrabbits, 329 Jacob, François, 1102 Jacobson's organ, 671, 960, 1743; elephants, 435; pheromones and, 1234 Jaguars, 170, 449, 549, 578, 899-901; deciduous forests and, 626 Jaguarundis, 549 James' flamingos, 600 Japanese beetles, 105-106 Japanese cranes, 293 Japanese spider crabs, 288 Jarans, 556 Jardin des Plantes, France, 496 Jardin du Roi, France, 493 Jardin Zoologique d'Acclimatation, 150 Jarkov mammoth, 990 Java man, 784, 823 Jaws, 342, 350 Jejunum, 351 Jellyfish, 38-39, 79, 902-904; box, 1586; defense mechanisms, 318;   ingestion, 861; nerve ring, 141; tool use, 1615 Jerboas, 535, 1137 Jet propulsion, 1050 Johanson, Donald, 823 Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, 306 Johnson, Roswell, 409 Joints; endoskeletons and, 467; exoskeletons and, 499 Jörgensen, Marie, 1416 Jumping hares, 527 Jumping mice, 764 Juncos, 1525 Just, Ernest Everett, 1216 Just, Ernest Everett, 1217 Juvenile hormone (JH), 458, 1031, 1053, 1743 Juvocimines, 1257 K K selection, 1380 K strategy, 233, 1481, 1743 Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire, 682 Kaibab Plateau (Arizona) deer disaster, 688 Kairomone, 1743 Kairomones, 1232 Kako, Edward, 933 Kandell, E. R., 718 Kangaroo rats, 5; nesting, 1126 Kangaroos, 539, 905-907, 984, 1011; lactation, 917 Kanzi (bonobo), 887, 931, 933 Karisoke Research Center, Rwanda, 681 Karlson, Peter, 1031 Katydids, 683; ears, 399 Kaufman, Thomas, 339 Kaziranga National Park, India, 537 Keeton, William, 883 Kelp forests, 1003 Kenyanthropus platyops, 1201 Keoladeo Ghana National Park, India, 537 Keratin, 223, 582, 642, 812, 1063, 1453, 1502, 1622, 1743 Keratinocyte, 181 Kestrels, American, 1636 Keystone species, 260, 1003, 1743; amphibians, 32; ecological niches   and, 413; predation and, 1306 Kidneys, 5, 36, 807, 908, 911; aging and, 14; desert animals, 329;   endocrine systems and, 463; osmoregulation and, 1171; pH maintenance   and, 1227; water and, 1670 Killer whales, 376, 378, 701 Kilocalories, 1026, 1148 Kimura, Motoo, 1129, 1287 Kin groups and offspring care, 699 Kin selection, 20, 482, 867, 1109, 1286, 1743 Kinesthesia, 1474 Kinetic skull, 1743 King cobras, 1523 King penguins, 1222 King salmon, 1443 King vultures, 1660 Kingdom, 1743 Kingfishers, 126 Kinkajous, 551, 1347 Kinosternon, 474, 1622 Kites, 394, 731, 1457. See Hawks Kiwis, 123, 572, 1177 Kleiber, Max, 951 Klipspringer antelope, 1232 Knotting behavior, 927 Knuckle-walking, 1743 Koalas, 539, 912-914, 984 Kobs, 524 Kogia whales, 376 Köhler, Wolfgang, 887, 938, 1613 Koko (gorilla), 933 Komodo dragons, 538, 960-961 Kongonis, 44 Kookaburras, 543 Kori bustards, 125 Koupreys, 538 Kraits, 537 Krakauer, David, 931 Krebs, Charles, 266 Krill, 301, 861, 1682, 1743 Krings, Matthias, 1116 Krogh, August, 1416 Kudus, 44 Kuru, 363 L La Brea Tar Pits, California, 16, 170 Labia, 1386 Labial folds, 1743 Labium, 1743 Laboratory animals; mice and rats, 1034; rodents, 1431 Lac insects, 538 Lacertilia, 1397 Lactation, 915-919, 1743; offspring care and, 1155; platypuses, 1260; relationship to infanticide, 857; whales, 1685 Lactic acid, 964, 1227 Lactogenesis, 1743 Lactose, 916 Lacunae, 468, 1743 Ladder of perfection, 491 Lady crabs, 288 Ladybugs, 105 Lagena, 737 Lagerstätten, 631 Lagomorphs, 1344 Lake trout, 1443 Lakes, 709, 920-924; eels, 429 Lakes and rivers; beaver dams, 774 Lama glama, 383 Lama pacos, 383 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 492, 496 Lamarckism, 1743 Lambeosaurines, 723 Lamellae, 973, 1413, 1454, 1497, 1743 Lamellar bone, 468 Laminar flow, 611 Laminate structure, 1744 Lammergeiers, 773, 1660 Lamnidae, 1488, 1687 Lampbrush chromosomes, 648 Lampreys, 925-929, 1317, 1642 Lana (chimpanzee), 933 Lancelets, 41, 1320 Language, 881, 930-935, 1659; bees, 254; evolution and, 490;   gorillas, 682; hominid, 59; human evolution and, 827; Odontoceti, 377; orangutans   and, 1168; primates and, 1328; vocalizations, 1657; whales, 1683 Language Research Center, Atlanta, 887 Langur monkeys; Hanuman, 537; infanticide, 857 Lankester, Edwin Ray, 441-442 Lantern fishes, 121 Lapland buntings, 534 Larson, Peter, 1627 Larva, 1744 Larvacea, 206 Larvae, 1028, 1713; molting, 1052; mosquitoes, 1070 Larynx, 1655, 1744 Lateral line organ, 400 Lateral line system, 1488 Laterobronchi, 1408 Latimeria chalumnae, 506 Latimeria chalumnae, 595 Latimeria menadoensis, 506 Latrodectus mactans, 1533 Latrodectus hesperus, 328 Laughing hyenas, 836 Law of continuity, 610 Law of independent assortment, 666 Law of segregation, 665 Lawrence's goldfinches, 1526 Laysan ducks, 388 Lazarus taxa, 1744 Leakey, Louis, 202, 681, 823, 1168, 1200 Leakey, Maeve, 1200 Leakey, Mary, 783, 1200 Leakey, Richard, 1200 Learning, 936-942; altruism, 19; bears, 94; behavior and, 798;   cephalopods, 142; ethology and, 481; geese, 658; groups and, 699; habituation, 716;   imprinting versus, 851; insects, 142; instincts and, 880; neocortex and, 144; octopuses, 1151;   packs and, 1188-1189; primates, 1324; sleep and, 1511 Least weasels, 1674 Leatherback turtles, 1396, 1623 Lechwes, 524 Lecithotrophy, 1744 Leeches, 833, 862, 1706 Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, 182, 469, 1330 Leghorns, 197 Legs, giraffe, 670 Lehrman, Daniel, 798 Leidy, Joseph, 722 Leiopelmatidae, 31 Leks, 267, 285, 367, 699, 1018, 1375, 1744 Lemmings, 534, 1280, 1619 Lemuridae, 944 Lemuroidea, 1326 Lemurs, 527, 561, 943-945, 1326; estivation, 474; extinction, 450 Lens, 520 Lentic communities, 711 Leonardo da Vinci, 628 Leopards, 170, 946-948, 1137 Leopold, Aldo, 1690 Lepidoptera, 152 Lepidosauria, 842, 1396 Lepidosiren, 473 Lepidosiren paradoxa, 969 Lepidosirenidae, 969 Lepidotrichia, 592, 1744 Leporidae, 1344 Leptasterias, 406 Leptocephalus, 1744 Leptodactylidae, 31 Leptopterygius, 843 Leptospirosis, 1744 Leptotyphlopidae, 1523 Lesser flamingos, 600 Lesser spotted eagles, 732 Leukemia, 362 Lewin, Roger, 932 Lewis, Edward B., 1103 Lexigrams, 1744 Leydig cells, 649, 1391 Lice and diseases, 363 Lichens, 1744 Lieberman, Daniel, 1116 Lieberman, Phillip, 930 Liebig, Justus von, 149 Life cycle, 949 Life cycles, 1280, 1744; aging and, 13 Life expectancy, 1744 Life spans, 13, 304, 321, 949-954, 1006, 1744; offspring care   and, 1157; pollution and, 1271; tortoises, 1396; urban and suburban wildlife, 1635 Life tables, 324, 1744 Lift, 966, 1744 Ligers, 1611 Light; eyes and, 520; hibernation and, 762; nocturnal animals   and, 1135; polarized, 1651; sense organs and, 1473; vision and, 1651 Lillie, Frank, 1216 Limb bud, 1744 Limbic system, 143, 1120, 1744 Limbs, tetrapod, 1066 Limpets, 1518 Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), 821 Limulus polyphemus, 820 Lincoln Park, Chicago, 1718 Lincoln-Petersen index, 1007 Lindeman,Raymond, 423 Ling Ling (panda), 238 Linnaeus, Carolus, 492, 597, 628, 786, 1238, 1566-1567, 1570, 1710 Lions, 170, 955-957; cannibalism and, 163; competition among, 268;   copulation, 278; homes, 774; hunting and sociality, 701; infanticide, 857 Liopleurodon, 1319 Liphistiidae, 64 Lipids, 179, 1149, 1744; pheromones and, 1233 Lipophilic, 1744 Lipophores, 1505 Lips, 349; elephants, 434; rhinoceroses, 1419; sheep, 1493; tusks and, 1584 Lissamphibia, 29 Lithobiidae, 186 Litter, 1744 Litter size; gestation and, 1251; offspring care and, 1157;   reproductive strategies and, 1380; uterus and, 1312 Liver, 343, 351, 1744; endocrine systems and, 462 Lizards, 958-962; Africa, 527; birth, 131; black-collared, 328;   Caribbean, 547; chameleons, 188; claws, 224; crested basilisk, 552; ears, 401; flying,   961, 1698; Madagascar, 562; monitor, 542, 961; night, 961; poisonous, 1262; scales, 1454;   snakes and, 1520; tails, 1573; tegus, 961; thermoregulation, 1600; whiptail, 80, 961 Llamas, 147, 156, 383, 575; wool, 643 Lloyd, David, 1361 Lobsters, 288-291, 301; brain, 142; circulatory systems, 212;   claws, 225; endocrine systems, 459; exoskeletons, 500; rock, 302 Local extinction, 1744 Local resource competition, 856 Locomotion, 963-968, 1744; anteaters, 71; antelope, 47;   appendages, 4; armadillos, 73; centipedes and millipedes, 185; cheetahs, 194; crabs, 288;   crocodiles, 298; echinoderms, 408; endoskeletons and, 466; fins and flippers, 589;   fossils and, 632; giraffes, 670; gorillas, 679; horses, 816; hydrostatic skeletons   and, 832; ichthyosaurs, 843; kangaroos, 905; lobsters, 290; mollusks, 1049; nematodes, 1433;   orangutans, 1166; primates, 1323; protozoa, 1331; snakes, 1397, 1522; tails and, 1573;   thermoregulation and, 1602; velociraptors, 1640; worms, 1706 Locusts, 557, 683; population fluctuations, 1281; Rocky Mountain, 684 Loeb, Jacques, 1216-1217 Logistic growth, 1293, 1380, 1744 London Zoo, 150, 1718 Long-tailed weasels, 1674 Longevity, 949; demography and, 324 Longitudinal muscle, 1744 Longshore currents, 1605 Longspurs, 1525 Long-term pair bond, 1744 Loons, 125 Loop of Henle, 910, 1670, 1744 Lordosis, 477 Lorenz, Konrad, 254, 480, 849-850, 880, 938 Lories, 1212 Lorikeets, 570 Lorises, 1326 Lotic communities, 711 Lotka-Volterra model, 1308 Lotka, A. J., 268 Loulis (chimpanzee), 931, 933 Low oxygen. See also Hypoxia Lower chordates. See Chordates, lower Lubbock, John, 782 Luciferase, 1744 Luciferin, 1745 Luciferin and luciferase, 119, 1152 Lucretius, 491 Lucy, 490, 783, 823 Lumen, 350, 1745 Lungfish, 506, 595, 969-971; estivation, 473; hearts, 743 Lungless salamanders, 1440 Lungs, 35, 651, 972-976, 1413, 1416, 1670, 1745; amphibians, 637;   arthropod, 76; birds, 1408; circulation and, 217; hearts and, 743; lungfish, 969; noses   and, 1145; osmoregulation and, 1171; pH maintenance and, 1227; spiders,   1532; turtles, 1623; whales, 1683 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 462, 649, 805, 1385, 1390 Lycaon pictus, 980 Lyell, Charles, 492, 505, 782, 1111 Lymphatic vessels, 1745 Lymphocytes, 361, 846, 1745 Lynx, 170, 1280; deciduous forests and, 625; Europe, 555; Iberian, 555;   Latvia, 553; snowshoe hares and, 410 Lyriform organs, 400 Lysosomes, 180 M Macaques, 536, 1056, 1326; pig-tailed, 767; troops, 1187 Macaroni penguins, 1222 MacArthur, Robert H., 115, 268, 1380 Macaws, 551, 1212 McCarty, Maclyn, 666 McCrone, John, 931 MacGillivray, William, 124 Macheirhamphus alcinus, 732 Mackerel, 860 Mackerel sharks, 1488 MacLeod, Colin, 666 Macrochelys temminckii, 1623 Macroeuphractus, 74 Macroevolution, 1745 Macrohabitats, 709 Macrophage colony stimulatory factor, 807 Macrophages, 182, 360, 846, 1745 Macroplankton, 1713 Macrotermes natalensis, 868 Maculae, 738 Mad cow disease, 163, 305, 363, 818, 1646 Madagascan fauna. See Fauna: Madagascar Madagascar fish eagles, 395 Madoqua, 44, 979 Madreporite, 405, 1745 Magainins, 1503 Magendie, François, 1357 Maggots, 606 Magnesium, 1496 Magpie geese, 392 Maiasaura, 723 Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 847 Malaclemys, 1622 Malacochersus, 1622 Malacology, 1711 Malacostraca, 288 Malayan bears, 95 Male, 1745 Males; hierarchies, 767; horns and antlers, 811; pair-bonding roles, 1193 Mallard ducks, 388 Malleus, 739 Malphigian tubule, 909, 1745 Mambas, 1522 Mammalian social systems, 977-982, 1187; baboons, 83; dolphins, 377;   estrus and, 476; gorillas, 679; grooming in, 693; hierarchies, 767;   lemurs, 943; meerkats, 1021; primates, 1328 Mammalogy, 1711 Mammals, 42, 566, 983-987, 1241, 1642; Arctic, 532; birth and, 130;   brain, 143; deciduous forests and, 624; dinosaurs and, 356; ears, 402; endoskeletons   and, 467; estivation, 474; female reproductive systems, 1385, 1389;   fur, 642; Galápagos Islands, 560; hearts, 741; hormones, 804-810; imprinting, 849;   lactation, 915; Madagascar, 561; male reproductive systems, 1390, 1394; mammoths, 988;   marsupials, 1011; offspring care, 1155; omnivores, 1161; ova, 441;   pair-bonding and, 1192; pH balance, 1226; placental, 1249-1252; vocalizations, 1655; whales, baleen, 1682 Mammary glands, 915, 983, 1251, 1745; monotremes, 1059 Mammoths, 176, 555, 988-990; cloning, 238; extinction, 508 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, 537 Manatees, 551, 592, 991-993 Mandarin ducks, 391 Mandible, 1745 Maned wolves, 579 Manes, 1745; elk, 437; giraffes, 670; lions, 955 Mangals, 1550 Mange, 363 Mangrove swamps; habitat destruction, 713 Mangrove swamps, 1550 Maniraptoriformes, 355 Manta birostis, 1489 Manta rays, 1489 Mantis religiosa, 1301 Mantle, 1745 Mantodea, 1301 Marabou storks, 1458, 1547, 1662 Marasuchus, 354 Marbled murrelets, 262 Marcus, Emilie A., 718 Margays, 549 Margulis, Lynn, 1082 Mariana Trench, Pacific Ocean, 308 Marine animals, 994-999; Antarctica, 530; crabs, 288;   echinoderms, 405; invertebrates, 889; jellyfish, 902; osmoregulation, 1173; water balance and, 1672 Marine biology, 1000-1004; reefs, 1354; zooplankton, 1713 Marine Mammal Protection Act, U.S., 379 Marine regression and extinctions, 513 Mark, release, and, 1005-1010 Mark, release, and recapture methods, 126, 262, 268, 662, 980, 1005, 1010, 1281, 1295 Marked, 1745 Marker pheromones, 1233 Marking, 1005 Marleys, 551 Marmosets, 1325 Marmots, 535, 1538 Marrow, 136 Marsh, Othniel C., 1616 Marshes, 567, 920, 994, 1550-1553; endangered habitats, 556 Marsupial moles, 1046 Marsupials, 539, 541, 984, 1011-1015, 1241, 1249, 1451, 1745; Central   America, 549; kangaroos, 905; koalas, 912; opossums, 1163; Pacific   Islands, 571; Tasmanian devils, 1578; uterus, 1386 Marsupium, 1013, 1164, 1745 Martens, 1675 Mass extinctions, 505, 512, 1101, 1206, 1240, 1317, 1745 Master control gene, 1745 Mastigophora, 1331 Mastodonsaurus giganteus, 1318 Matamatas, 1623 Mate choice, 1374, 1745 Mate competition, 1374, 1745 Maternal, 1745 Mathematical models; altruism, 21; ecosystems and, 714; genetic   equilibrium, 726; natural selection and, 1109; population analysis, 1275; population   fluctuations, 1279; population genetics, 1288; population growth, 1292; predation, 1308; social organizations, 981 Maticora, 1575 Mating, 894, 1016-1020, 1373; amphibian, 27; baboons, 1189; cannibalism   and, 163; courtship and, 283; crocodiles, 296; echidnas, 279; estrus and, 476; goats, 675;   hormones and, 802; horns and antlers and, 812; hybrids, 234; natural selection and, 1106;   nonrandom, 1139; pair-bonding and, 1191; pheromones and, 368, 1233; population genetics and, 1286;   pregnancy and, 1311; salmon, 1443; social groups and, 977; spiders, 1533; squirrels, 1539; vision and, 1650 Mating calls, 477, 895, 1656; koalas, 913; orangutans, 1167; ostriches, 1176 Matrilines, 1745 Matrix, 223, 1496, 1745; bone, 812 Matrotrophy, 1745 Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de, 492 Maxillary, 1745 Maximal intrinsic rate of increase, 1293 Mayr, Ernst, 1339 Meadow grasshoppers, 684 Mech, David, 1282 Mechanical isolation, 895 Mechanoreception; hair and, 644 Mechanoreceptors, 737, 1473 Meckel, J. F., 337 Medial lemnisci, 1121 Medulla, 1745 Medulla oblongata, 143, 1120 Medusae, 79, 903, 1745 Meerkats, 1021-1023 Megachasma pelagios, 1490 Megafauna, African, 525 Megaladapidae, 944 Megamouth sharks, 309, 1490 Megaplankton, 1713 Megaptera novaengliae, 1685 Megatherium, 74 Meier, Albert H., 1425 Meiosis, 441, 646, 1386, 1745 Meiosis-inducing substance (MIS), 458 Meissner plexus, 351 Melanin, 582 Melanistic, 1745 Melanocytes, 1505 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 462 Melanophila acuminata, 1475 Melanophore, 1745 Melanoplus spretus, 684 Melanospiza richardsonii, 560 Melanosuchus, 299 Meleagris gallopavo, 328 Meloidogyne incognita, 1434 Membrane bone, 136, 468 Membranes; ears, 738 Memory B cells, 847 Memory lymphocytes, 361 Menagerie, 1745 Menageries, 1717 Mendel, Gregor, 149, 494, 664, 725, 1710 Mendelian genetics, 338, 1100, 1286 Menstrual cycles, 806, 1387, 1745; endocrine systems and, 464; hormones   and, 799; orangutans, 1167 Merganettini, 392 Mergansers, 389 Mergini, 391 Merian, Maria Sibylla, 878 Meroplanktonic zooplankton, 1713 Merostomata, 820, 1497 Mesencephalon, 143 Mesenchyme, 1746 Mesenchyme cells, 1066 Mesentery, 350 Mesoderm, 228, 333, 441, 705, 1080, 1746 Mesodermal branchial glands, 458 Mesogastropoda, 1518 Mesoglea, 902, 1746 Mesopelagic zone, 994 Mesoplankton, 1713 Mesosuchia, 295 Mesozoic era, 1746 Message cells, 182 Metabolic acidosis, 1227 Metabolic alkalosis, 1228 Metabolic disorders, 364 Metabolic rate, 1746 Metabolic rates, 806; closed circulatory systems and, 213; estivation   and, 473 Metabolism, 5, 36, 909, 951, 1148, 1746; adaptations to   hypoxia, 1403; anaerobic, 1227; cells, 181; diseases and, 361; egg, 587; endocrine   systems and, 461; hypoxia and, 1401; invertebrates, 456; metabolic rates, 1024-1027;   osmoregulation and, 1171; pollution and, 1271; ruminants, 1437; thermoregulation   and, 1599, 1663; water and, 1669; white sharks, 1688 Metacercariae, 604 Metallic wood borers, 106 Metamerism, 1706 Metamorphosis, 27, 104, 154, 878, 1028-1032, 1746; ants, 52; birth   and, 131; eels, 429; endocrine systems and, 457; flies, 607; frogs, 638; growth   and, 705; lampreys, 926; molting and, 1053; regeneration   and, 1365; salamanders, 1439; termites, 1590 Metatheria, 1241 Metazoa, 1079-1080, 1746; endocrine systems, 456 Metencephalon, 143 Methane; ruminant digestion, 1437 Methyl bromide, 1100 Methylation, 333 Mexican beaded lizards, 960 Mice, 667, 1033-1035, 1431, 1637; immune system, 847; reproduction, 1429; uterus, 1312 Micrathene whitneyi, 1182 Microbes and pheromones, 1234 Microbiology, 117 Microbiotheriidae, 1011 Microchioptera, 328 Microcosms, 423 Microevolution, 1746 Microhabitats, 709 Microhylidae, 30, 637 Microphages, 1746 Microplankton, 1713 Microsauria, 28 Microscopes, 182 Microstomata, 1521 Microsurgery, 334 Microvillar photoreceptors, 1651 Microvilli, 522 Midbrain, 143, 1120 Middle Eastern fauna, 536 Migration, 5, 123, 702, 1036-1041, 1106, 1746; antelope, 45;   beaches, 1606; butterflies, 154; circannual rhythms and, 1423; courtship and, 287;   cranes, 292; diel vertical, 1714; dinosaur, 54; ducks, 389; eels, 429; elephant   seals, 432; elk, 438; geese, 657; genetic equilibrium and, 727; hawks, 732; herds and, 752;   hormones and, 799; hummingbirds, 829; lampreys, 926; language and, 932; nutrient   requirements and, 1149; population fluctuations and, 1280; predation and, 1305;   reindeer, 1371; salmon, 1004, 1443; social organizations and, 979; songbirds, 1277;   storks, 1547; swans, 1554; tundra, 1620; whale sharks, 1679 Migratory animals, 1746 Milk, 915 Milk ducts, 915 Milk ejection, 1746 Millipedes, 75, 185-187 Milt, 1444 Milvus migrans, 732 Mimicry, 1042-1044, 1254, 1746; aggressive, 1305; Batesian, 153, 317,   1305; defense mechanisms, 317; Müllerian, 317, 1305; protective, 160; salamanders, 30 Mineralization, 1199; shells and, 1497 Mineralocorticoids, 806 Minerals, 1149 Mink, 1552, 1677 Miracidia, 604 Mirror test, 445 Missing links, 492, 787 Mites, 66; Antarctica, 530 Mitochondria, 180, 587, 647, 964, 1746 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 793, 825 Mitosis, 227, 704, 951, 1746 Mitotic cells, 1502 Mitral valve, 743 Mitrates, 205 Mixed volume system in respiration, 653 Mixosaurus, 844 Moas, 123, 572 Moby Dick, 375 Modality, 1473, 1746 Models (mimicry), 1042 Models, population, 1275 Modifiable action patterns (MAPs), 882 Molars, 1581, 1746 Molds, 363 Mole crabs, 288 Molecular biology, 117 Molecular clocks, 824 Molecular drive, 1131 Molecular genetics, 1285 Molecule, 1746 Moles, 1045-1047; homes, 773; nesting, 1126 Mollusks, 40, 890, 999, 1048-1051, 1151, 1713, 1746; circulatory   systems, 212; endocrine systems, 456; hearts, 742; hydrostatic skeletons, 834; life   spans, 952; muscles, 1089, 1091; nervous systems, 142; shells, 1496; snails, 1517 Molting, 104, 154, 1052-1055, 1746; arthropod, 76; chickens, 199;   crustaceans, 303; ducks, 388; endocrine systems and, 457; exoskeletons, 501; feathers   and, 583; flies, 606; geese, 657; grasshoppers, 684; homeosis and, 776; insects, 874;   metamorphosis and, 1029; millipedes, 187; mosquitoes, 1070; spiders,   1530; termites, 867. See also Shedding Molting hormone, 458 Monarch butterflies, 315; aposematism, 162 Mongooses, 548, 562, 1021; carnivores, 167; ecological niche miscalculation, 413;   Pacific Islands, 569; snakes and, 1524 Monitor lizards, 961 Monitor lizards, 542, 960 Monk seals, 557, 1466, 1468 Monkey-eating eagles, 536 Monkeys, 57, 82, 1056-1058, 1452; Africa, 527; aging, 14; Central   America, 551; hierarchies, 767; howler, 551; infanticide, 857; lemurs, 943; proboscis, 538;   social systems, 978; vervet communication, 255; vocalizations, 1658 Monod, Jacques, 1102 Monodon monoceros, 376, 378 Monogamy, 286, 1019, 1191, 1380, 1746; seahorses, 1464 Monomers, 846 Monophyletic, 1746 Monoplacophora, 1498 Monosynaptic reflex, 1358 Monotremes, 279, 984, 1059-1061, 1746 Moose, 311, 623, 625, 1062-1064, 1631; antlers, 813 Moray eels, 430 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 1103 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 666, 1217 Morphogenesis, 331, 705, 1065-1069, 1746 Morphology, 1746 Mortality rates, 321, 1006, 1746 Morula, 227, 705, 1250, 1312, 1747 Mosaic development, 1747 Moschinae, 311 Mosquitoes, 1070-1072, 1550; diseases and, 363; ears, 399;   ingestion, 862; malaria and, 876; protozoa and, 1332 Moss, Cynthia, 307 Moths, 152-155; Atlas, 152; camouflage, 6; ears, 399; ethology and, 481; gypsy, 154;   peppered, 1106; smell and, 1515; yucca, 1254 Motile cells, 1082 Motilin, 464 Motor neurons, 1119, 1747 Motor unit, 1747 Mouflon, 1493; clones, 238 Mount St. Helens, 261 Mount Tamalpais, California, 192 Mountain gorillas, 681 Mountain lions, 977, 1073-1075 Mountain zebras, 817 Mountains, 566, 1076-1078; goats, 673 Mouse. See Mice Mousebirds, 126 Mousterian culture, 824 Mouth, 342, 349, 1747 Mucosa, 350, 1747 Mucous glands; amphibians, 638 Mucus, 1145, 1503, 1747 Mud turtles, 1622; estivation, 474 Mule deer, 311 Mules, 385-387; military, 1648 Mulika (bonobo), 934 Müllerian ducts, 1484, 1747 Müllerian-inhibiting-substance (MIS), 1484 Müllerian mimicry, 162, 317, 1043, 1305 Multicellular organisms, 1747 Multicellularity, 227, 704, 1065, 1079-1086, 1240, 1568 Multiple motor unit summation, 1095 Multiregional hypothesis of Neanderthal taxonomy, 1116 Muntiacinae, 311 Muntjacs, 311 Muraenidae, 430 Muridae, 1033 Murine leukemia viruses (MuLVs), 362 Murrelets, marbled, 262 Mus musculus, 667, 1033 Muscles; aging and, 14; anatomy, 34; bat ears, 1136; bones and, 134;   cells, 182; endoskeletons and, 466; exoskeletons and, 500; flight and, 1407; gharials, 298;   growth of, 705; hair and, 1504; hydrostatic skeletons and, 834; invertebrates, 1087, 1093;   locomotion and, 963, 965; mollusks, 1049; nervous systems and, 1121; papillary, 743;   REM sleep and, 1510; skin and, 1503; snails, 1518; snakes, 1522;   vertebrates, 1094, 1098, 1643; wings and, 1695 Muscovy ducks, 383 Museum of Comparative Zoology, Boston, 1565 Musk, 316, 1506, 1674, 1747 Musk deer, 311 Musk oxen, 532, 1619 Muskrats, 1431 Mussels, 220, 1050, 1551; ingestion, 860; tidepools, 1607; zebra, 109 Mustangs, 818 Mustela, 1677 Mustelidae, 625, 1180, 1506, 1674 Musth, 435, 1747 Mutagen, 1141 Mutagens, 1100 Mutation, 1747 Mutations, 3, 10, 726, 824, 1099-1106, 1139, 1143, 1285; antibiotic   resistance and, 361; competition and, 265; evolution, 487; flies, 1103; gene flow   and, 661; genetic fitness, 3; homeosis and, 778 Mutual grooming, 693 Mutualism, 245, 259, 1253, 1558, 1747; ants and acacias, 318; coevolution   and, 417; coral, 41; reefs, 1355 Muzzle, 1747 Mycerobas, 1526 Myelencephalon, 143 Myelinated axon, 1747 Myelinated axons, 1120 Myenteric plexus, 351 Myliobatidae, 1489 Mynah birds, 1657 Myobatrachidae, 31 Myoblast, 332 Myocarditus, 1747 Myoepithelial cells, 915, 1747 Myofibrils, 332, 1087 Myomeres, 1488 Myometrium, 1386 Myosin, 965, 1087, 1097, 1747 Myotatic reflex, 1361 Myriapods, 185 Myrmecology, 1747 Myrmecophaga tridactyla, 71 Myrmecophagidae, 71 Myrmeleontidae, 1613 Mythical animals, 628 Myxoviruses, 364 N N, 1747 Nacre, 1747 Nails, 37, 223-226; endoskeletons and, 467 Nanoplankton, 1713 Narceus americanus, 186 Naris, 1144 Narwhals, 376, 378 Nasal septum, 1144 Nasal swell spaces, 1144 Nasohypophysial opening, 925, 1747 Natality rate, 1747 Natality rates, 321 National Audubon Society, 126 National Environmental Protection Act, 1692 National Park Service, U.S., 1692 National parks, 1691 National parks, African, 526 National Wildlife Federation, 1692 National Wildlife Refuge System, 450 National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., 1719 Natural history, 1256; ecological niches and, 410 Natural History Museum, London, 1259 Natural killer cells, 846 Natural selection, 3, 8, 232, 487, 867, 1106-1113, 1747; altruism and, 19; competition   and, 265; defense mechanisms, 314; ecology and, 415; emotions and, 446; extinction   and, 507; gene flow and, 661; genetic equilibrium and, 727; infanticide and, 856;   instincts and, 882; isolating mechanisms and, 895; life spans and, 952; operation of,   9; population genetics and, 1286; reproductive strategies and, 1379; species selection   versus, 1341; Wallace, Alfred Russel, 1111 Nature versus nurture, 882 Nautiloids, 1498 Nautilus, 1153, 1586 Nautilus pompilius, 520 Navigation, 1036, 1747 Neanderthals, 490, 782, 792, 824, 1114-1118 Nearctic zone, 564 Necks, giraffe, 670 Necrolysis, 630 Nectar, 1255 Nectridea, 28 Negative assortative mating, 1139 Negative chemotaxis, 1514 Negative feedback loops, 462, 805 Negative pressure breathing, 1415 Nei, Masatoshi, 1129 Nekton, 1001, 1747 Nematoblasts, 890 Nematocera, 606; antennae, 48 Nematocysts, 349, 902, 1615, 1747; defense mechanisms, 318; tentacles and, 1586 Nematodes, 40, 833, 890, 1433, 1560, 1747; Antarctica, 530;   estivation, 473; nervous systems, 142 Nemertean worms, 213 Neoceratodus, 843 Neoceratodus forsteri, 970 Neocortex, 143 Neofelis nebulosa, 946 Neoplastic diseases, 364 Neoteny, 339, 757, 1747; chordates, lower, 207 Neotragus pygmaeus, 44 Neotropical fauna, 1747 Neotropical zone, 549, 564 Nephridia, 909, 1706, 1747 Nephron, 909, 1670, 1748 Nephrops norvegicus, 301 Nereidae, 1586 Nereids, 457 Neritic zone, 994 Nerve growth factor, 807 Nerve nets, 141 Nerves, 1119, 1748 Nervous, 1119-1124 Nervous systems; muscles and, 1504 Nervous systems, 141; behavior and, 802; crabs, 302;   echinoderms, 405; endocrine systems and, 461; ethology and, 481; formation, 441;   growth of, 705; heart rates, 742; hypoxia and, 1402; invertebrates, 77; learning   and, 936; locomotion and, 963; molting and, 1052; muscles and, 1090, 1095; nematodes, 1433;   neurulation and, 227; osmoregulation and, 1172; reflexes and, 1357; reticular network, 717;   rhythms and, 1425; sense organs and, 1472; smell and, 1515; vertebrates, 34, 143,   1119, 1124, 1642; vision and, 1652; white sharks, 1688 Nest box programs, 1748 Nest-parasite, 1748 Nest-parasites, 1156 Nested hierarchies, 767 Nesting, 88, 1125-1128; birth and, 131; communal, 699, 752; crocodiles, 297; dinosaurs, 356;   displays and, 369; hadrosaurs, 723; hawks, 733; hormones and, 798; hornets, 1666;   insects, 772; orangutans, 1167; ostriches, 1177; owls, 1185; pair-bonding and, 1191;   pelicans, 1220; salmon, 1443; social insects, 868; sparrows, 1527; storks, 1547;   termites, 1589; territoriality and, 1593; vultures, 1661; woodpeckers, 1703 Net primary productivity, 618 Networks, cell, 182 Neural arch, 1643 Neural cortex, 144 Neural integration, 1748 Neural mechanisms and language, 930 Neural spine, 1748 Neurobiology, 939, 1748; ethology and, 481 Neurodegenerative diseases, 363 Neuroethology, 1748 Neurohemal organs, 457 Neurohormones, 457, 1052 Neuromuscular systems, 1243 Neurons, 143, 182, 1119, 1358, 1748; hearing and, 740; neurosecretory cells and, 457 Neuropeptides, 882 Neurosecretory cells, 456, 1748 Neurotoxins, 1262, 1533, 1748 Neurotransmitters, 807, 1748; habituation and, 718 Neurulation, 227, 231, 441, 1748 Neutral, 1129-1134 Neutral mutation, 1288 Neutral mutations, 271, 1129, 1134 Neutrophils, 182, 360, 846 New World monkeys, 1056, 1326 New York Zoological Park, 451, 1718 Newcastle disease, 305 Newts, 1439-1442; regeneration, 1365 Niche, 1748 Niche generalizations, 411 Niche overlap, 410 Nicobar serpent-eagle, 394 Nicrophorus orbicollis, 856 Nidifugous birds, 1748 Night lizards, 961 Nightjars, 1137 Nim Chimsky (chimpanzee), 887, 933 Nipples, 916, 1748 Nitric oxide synthetase, 463 Nitric oxides, 1270 Nitrogen, 909, 1414 Nitrogen cycle, 616 Nitrosamines, 1100 Nitrous acid, 1100 Noble, William, 931 Nociceptors, 1473 Nocturnal, 1748 Nocturnal animals; deserts, 566; mink, 1677 Nocturnal animals, 1135-1138, 1422; aardvarks, 1; bats, 85; cats, 171;   desert, 329; eyes, 522; gophers, 677; koalas, 912; opossums, 1164; raccoons, 1347;   scorpions, 1460; vision, 1651 Nolen, Thomas G., 718 Nomadic, 1748 Nomads, 1036 Nomenclature, 1569, 1748 Nonhistones, 333 Nonmotile cells, 1082 Nonrandom, 1139-1143 Nonrandom mating, 1139, 1143 Nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, 1510, 1748 Nonruminating, 1748 Nonspecific defenses, 845 Nonsymbiotic mutualism, 1255 Norepinephrine, 802, 1025 North American biomes, 711 North American fauna. See Fauna: North America Northern cardinals, 1527 Northern fur seals, 477 Northern pintail ducks, 388 Northern shoveler ducks, 390 Norway rats, 1033 Noses, 1144-1146; beaks and bills compared to, 88; dogs, 371; elephant   seals, 431; elephants, 434; tusks and, 1584 Nothosaurus, 1319 Nothrotherium, 74 Notochord, 143, 206, 228, 469, 1241, 1574, 1642, 1748 Notosuchia, 295 Nowak, Martin, 931 Nubian goats, 674 Nuclear ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid, 1748 Nuclear transfer, 237, 1748 Nuclear transplantation, 332 Nuclei, 143, 1748 Nucleic acid, 1748 Nucleotides, 1099, 1131 Nucleus, 180, 1331, 1748 Numbats, 1578 Numerical response, 1305, 1748 Nüsslein-Volhard, Christiane, 1103 Nutrient, 1748 Nutrient cycle, 1748 Nutrient requirements, 741, 1147-1150; domestication and, 381; food webs   and, 616; hibernation and, 761; hummingbirds, 830; ingestion and, 859; koalas, 912;   lactation and, 917; metabolism and, 1024; ruminants, 1436; water, 1669 Nyalas, 526 Nyctea scandiaca, 1185, 1635 Nymphs, 1748; grasshoppers, 684 O Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 425 Occam's razor, 1130 Occipital condyle, 1749 Oceanic zone, 994 Oceans, 994, 1000 Ocelots, 170, 549, 581 Ochotonidae, 1344 Octocorallia, 280 Octopoda, 1151 Octopodidae, 1587 Octopus arborescens, 1151 Octopus dofleini, 1151 Octopus vulgaris, 1151 Octopuses, 1048, 1151-1154; brain, 142; hearts, 742; ingestion, 861; mimicry, 1044;   tentacles, 1587; tool use, 1614 Odobenidae, 1467 Odocoileinae, 311 Odontoceti, 375 Odor marking, 287 Office of Education, U.S., 1372 Offspring care; baboons, 1189; gender roles, 1158 Offspring care, 1155-1159, 1478; altruism, 20; camouflage, 161;   cats, 173; groups and, 699; imprinting, 849; lactation, 915; monkeys, 1058; packs, 1188;   packs and, 1188; primates, 1324; reproduction and, 1374; territoriality   and, 1593; whales, 378 Oil gland, 695 Oil spills, 304 Old World monkeys, 1056, 1326 Oldsquaw ducks, 391 Olduvai Gorge, 202, 786, 823, 1200 Olfaction, 1749 Olfactory bulbs, 1122 Olfactory lobes, 143 Olfactory receptors, 1749 Oligochaetes, 833, 1706 Olsen, M. W., 1217 Omasum, 351 Ommatidia, 1652 Ommatidium, 521, 1749 Omnivores, 344, 615, 1160-1162, 1749; opossums, 1164; pigs, 1247;   raccoons, 1347; squirrels, 1539 Onchocera volvulus, 527 Oncorhynchus, 1443 One-way flow, 653 Ontogenetic trajectories, 757 Ontogenetic trajectory, 1749 Ontogeny, 337, 1749 Ontology, 440 Oocyte, 648, 1386 Oogenesis, 647, 1749 Oogonia, 648 Open circulation, 1749 Open circulatory systems, 211 Operant conditioning, 937 Operators (mimicry), 1042 Opercular pumping, 1415 Operculum, 638, 1498 Ophidia, 1397 Ophiophagus hannah, 1523 Ophisaurus, 961, 1574 Ophiuroidea, 407 Opiliones, 65 Opisthosoma, 820 Opisthothelae, 65 Opossums, 551, 984, 1011, 1163-1165, 1637 Opportunistic omnivore, 1749 Opposable, 1749 Opsin, 522, 1651, 1749; ultraviolet light and, 1652 Optic lobes, 143 Optic nerve, 1473, 1749 Optimality theory, 1596 Optimum temperature, 1600, 1749 Oral disc, 925 Orangutan Foundation International, 1168 Orangutans, 59, 478, 537, 1166-1169, 1326, 1613; mirror test, 445 Orcas, 701 Orchelimum vulgare, 684 Orcinus orca, 376, 378 Order, 1749 Ordovician mass extinction, 508 Oreamnos americanus, 47 Organ of Corti, 738 Organelle, 1749 Organelles, 180, 1331 Organism, 1749 Organogenesis, 705 Orians, G. H., 268 Oriental rat fleas, 876 Orientation, 1749 Orientation response, 718 Orienting reflex, 1749 Orioles, 128 Ornithischia, 328, 355, 1446, 1749 Ornithology, 126, 1711, 1749 Ornithopods, 54, 355, 722, 1749 Ornithorhinchidae, 1059 Orthoptera, 683 Orthotomus, 1125 Orycteropodidae, 2 Orycteropus afer, 2 Oryctlagus cuniculus, 383 Oryx, 44 Oryx gazella, 45 Oryx leucoryx, 451 Os, 1749 Os penis, 370, 1018 Osborn, Henry F., 8 Osculum, 1536, 1749 Osmoconformer, 1749 Osmoreceptors, 1670 Osmoregulation, 908, 1170-1175, 1749; arthropod, 77; cartilaginous   fish, 1487; exoskeletons and, 500; fish, 594; noses and, 1145 Osmoregulator, 1749 Ossicles, 739, 1749 Ossicular chain, 401 Ossification, 134, 468 Osteichthyes, 42, 469, 594, 1241, 1749 Osten, Wilhelm von, 886 Osteoblasts, 468, 806, 1749 Osteoclasts, 806 Osteocytes, 468 Osteogenesis, 1749 Osteolaemis, 295 Osteolaemis tetraspis, 299 Osteostraci, 927 Ostia, 1536 Ostium, 1749 Ostracoderms, 925 Ostrea virginica, 1050 Ostriches, 527; farming, 384; related birds and, 1176-1178 Ostrom, John, 69, 1639 Otariidae, 1467 Otic notch, 400 Otolith, 1749 Otolith detectors, 400 Otters, 1179-1181, 1552, 1674; sea, 1003; tool use, 1613 Out-of-Africa hypothesis, 824, 1116 Outer ear canal, 738 Ova, 130, 441, 647, 1385, 1750 Oval gland, 1749 Oval window, 739 Ovalipes ocellatus, 288 Ovarian cycle, 463, 649; endocrine systems and, 464 Ovarian diverticulum, 1750 Ovaries, 646, 1385, 1484, 1750 Ovenbirds, 1125 Overgrazing, 687 Ovicide, 856 Oviduct, 798, 1386, 1750 Oviparity, 1750 Oviparous birth, 131; offspring care and, 1157 Oviphagy, 1750 Ovipositors, 684, 1750 Ovis aries, 382 Ovis orientalis, 382 Ovoviviparous species; sharks, 132 Ovoviviparous birth, 132; whale sharks, 1680 Ovulation, 649, 1311, 1380; lactation and, 917 Owl pellets, 1750 Owls, 126, 1136-1137, 1182-1186, 1619, 1635-1636; nesting, 1125;   snowy, 533; spotted, 109, 262, 453, 1128; vocalizations, 1656 Oxpeckers, 1419 Oxurinae, 389 Oxygen, 651, 741, 972, 1024, 1085, 1414; affinity for, 1403; consumption   by birds, 1407; respiration and, 1401; respiratory pigments   and, 1414; respiratory system and, 1413; transport of, 1402; whales, 376 Oxytocin, 446, 463, 805, 1750 Oxyura jamaicensis, 391 Oysters, 142, 220-222, 1050 Ozone depletion, 1271 Ozone layer, 1750 P Paabo, Svante, 1116 Pacemaker, 1750 Pacific hagfish, 926 Pacific Islands fauna. See Fauna: Pacific Islands Pacific seahorses, 1464 Pack rats, 1126 Packs, 766, 980, 1187-1190; dinosaurs, 17; hyenas, 836; life spans   and, 951; squid, 1151; wolves, 372 Paddlefish, 536 Pademelons, 905 Paedomorphosis, 757, 1750 Pain and sense organs, 1472 Paine, Robert, 1003 Pair bond, 1750 Pair-bonding; parrots, 1213 Pair-bonding, 699, 1019, 1191-1193, 1750; birds, 285; displays, 367;   ducks, 389; emotions and, 446; estrus and, 478; geese, 657; hawks, 733;   owls, 1185; swans, 1555 Pair-rule genes, 777, 1102, 1750 Palaeoctopus newboldi, 1154 Paleoanthropology, 793 Paleocortex, 143 Paleodiversity studies, 515 Paleoecology, 114, 1194-1198; ecosystems and, 425; fossils and, 631 Paleontology, 59, 114, 493, 495-496, 509, 516, 794, 1194, 1199,   1206-1208, 1339, 1711, 1750; birds, 127; fish, 597; flight, 611; fossils   and, 628; reptiles, 1398 Paleosuchus, 298 Paleozoic era, 1750 Paley, William, 492 Palolo worms, 585, 1423, 1706 Palos Verdes butterflies, 453 Palp, 1750 Palpigradi, 64 Palynology, 1750 Pampas, 686 Pampatherium, 74 Pan paniscus, 931 Pan troglodytes, 202, 931 Panbanisha (bonobo), 888 Pancake tortoises, 1622 Pancreas, 343, 351, 806, 1750 Pancreatic acinar cell, 181 Pandas, 95, 534, 1209-1211; clones, 238; diplomatic gifts, 1719; giant, 92; red, 92; zoos, 1716 Panther chameleons, 190 Panthera, 170 Panthera leo, 857 Panthera leo persica, 955 Panthera pardus orientalis, 947 Panthera uncia, 946 Panthers, black, 899, 946 Panting, 1665 Papillae, 1750 Papillomaviruses, 364 Papio anubis, 978 Papio cynocephalus ursinus, 82 Papio hamadryas, 82, 979 Parabronchi, 1408 Paraceratherium, 983 Parakeets, 543, 1212 Paramyosin, 1089, 1750 Paranthropus, 783 Parapodia, 1750 Parareptilia, 1624 Parasaurolophus, 1320 Parasegments, 777 Parasite-host interactions, 417 Parasite-mix, 1750 Parasites, 314, 363, 1148, 1750; ingestion, 862; insects, 875;   invertebrates, 890; mosquitoes, 1072; nematodes, 890, 1433; predation and, 1304;   protozoa, 1331; resistance and tusks, 1584; wasps, 1666; worms, 603; zooplankton, 995 Parasitism, 245, 259, 1557 Parasitology, 117 Parasympathetic nervous system, 1120 Parathormone, 806 Parathyroid glands, 806 Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 463 Parazoa, 1082 Parc des Volcans, Rwanda, 682 Parcolblatta pennsylvanica, 241 Pardalises, 562 Parental neglect, 857 Parietes, 1497 Paromomyiformes, 1325 Parrots, 108, 126, 1212-1214; African gray, 933; Australia, 543; tails, 1575 Parsonii, 562 Parthenogenesis, 77, 79, 892, 1020, 1215-1218, 1479, 1484, 1750;   beetles, 105; lizards, 958; nematodes, 1434; reptiles, 1398 Partial pressure, 1750 Partial pressure differences; measuring, 654 Parturition, 130 Parus carolinensis, 1127 Parvovirus, 1648 Passenger pigeons, 108; extinction, 449 Passer domesticus, 1525, 1634 Passer montanus, 1527 Passeridae, 1525 Passeriformes, 125, 1525 Patagium, 1750 Patch reef, 1750 Patch reefs, 1356 Pathogens, 360, 1750 Pathology, 360 Pattern formation, 1065 Patterson, Francine, 933 Pauling, Linus, 667, 1130 Pavlov, Ivan, 718, 937, 1360 Payne, Roger, 1184 Pea crabs, 288 Pearl kites, 731 Pearl, Raymond, 322 Pearlfish, 1558 Pearls, 221; oysters and, 1050 Peccaries, 580; deciduous forests and, 627 Pecking orders, 267 Pecora, 1436 Pectines, 1461, 1750 Pectoral and pelvic girdles, 1750 Pectoral fin, 1751 Pedicellariae, 405 Pedicle, 1751 Pedicles, 311, 812 Pedipalps, 1460, 1751 Peking man, 784 Pelage, 1751 Pelagic, 1751 Pelagic zone, 994, 1001 Pelecaniformes, 125 Pelecypods, 1048 Pelicans, 453, 1219-1221 Pelobatidae, 637 Pelodytidae, 31 Pelomedusidae, 1623 Pelvic fins, 1751 Penguins, 123, 581, 1222-1225 Penis, 277, 834, 1018, 1059, 1392, 1484 Penrose Research Laboratory, 1718 Pepperberg, Irene, 933 Peptide, 1751 Peramorphosis, 757, 1751 Perch, 1551 Perching birds, 125 Père David's deer, 451 Peregrine falcons, 109, 450 Perennial monogamy, 1019 Perfusion, 651 Pericardium, 741 Perilymph, 738 Perineal, 1751 Perineal glands, 1674 Period, 1751 Periodicity hypothesis, 1751 Periodicity of mass extinctions, 509 Periosteum, 1751 Periostracum, 1497 Peripheral nervous system, 143, 1119 Periplaneta americana, 241 Perissodactyls, 225, 986, 1629, 1751 Peristalsis, 350 Periwinkles, 1519 Periyar Lake National Park, India, 537 Permafrost, 1619 Permeability, 1751 Permian mass extinction, 508 Permineralization, 630 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 305, 1751 Perspiration, 1670, 1751 Pest control; pheromones and, 1234; pollution and, 1271 Pesticides, 304; bald eagles and, 735; endangered species and, 450; hawks and, 735 Petromyzon marinus, 926 Petronia, 1526 Pets; veterinary medicine and, 1646 Pfeiffer, John E., 791 pH, 1751 pH maintenance, 909, 1226-1231 Phagocytic cells, 845 Phagocytosis, 346, 348, 360, 1331, 1751 Phalangers, 912 Phalanges, 1751 Phanerozoic era, 1751 Phanopepla, 329 Pharynx, 343, 350, 861, 1751 Phasianidae, 200 Phasic receptors, 1472, 1751 Phasmid, 1751 Pheasant, 197, 200 Phenotypes, 665, 1139, 1751 Pheromones, 368, 876, 895, 1232-1237, 1475, 1514, 1751; communication   and, 252; courtship and, 283; crabs, 289; ethology and, 484; grooming   and, 693; insect control, 256; praying mantis, 1301; reception, 48; scorpions and, 1461;   snakes and, 1523; social insects and, 867; territoriality and, 1127 Philippine eagles, 394, 735 Phocidae, 1467 Phocoena phocoena, 376, 378 Phoeniconaias minor, 600 Phoenicoparrus andinus, 600 Phoenicoparrus jamesi, 600 Phoenicopteridae, 600 Phoenicopteriformes, 125 Phoenicopterus ruber, 600 Phoenix (dolphin), 934 Phonation, 1654 Phoresis, 1558 Phosphate buffer system, 1227 Photic zone, 994, 1001 Photinus, 121 Photoperiod, 1751 Photoperiodism, 1423, 1751 Photophores, 1152, 1751 Photopic conditions, 522 Photoreceptors, 521-522, 737, 1651, 1751; polarized light and, 1651 Photosensitive membrane, 520 Photosynthesis, 618, 1253, 1351, 1751; ingestion and, 863 Phototransduction, 522, 1652 Photuris, 121, 876 Phyla, 1239, 1752 Phylogenetics, 1752 Phylogeny, 337, 440, 758, 1238-1242, 1752 Phylum, 1568, 1752 Physeter catadon, 376 Physeteridae catodon, 378 Physical anthropology, 793 Physics, 509 Physiological buffering, 1227 Physiology, 5, 34, 1243-1245, 1710, 1752; emotions and, 444; ethology and, 480 Phytoflagellates, 1331 Phytophagous, 1752 Phytophagous insects, 874 Phytoplankton, 995, 1001, 1714, 1752 Pianka, Eric, 1381 Pichis, 72 Piciformes, 126 Picoides pubescens, 1127 Picornaviruses, 364 Pied wagtails, 1594 Pig-tailed macaques; hierarchies, 767 Pigeons, 126, 1634; homing, 1037; learning, 938; passenger pigeon extinction, 449 Pigeons, passenger, 108 Pigmented cup eye, 520 Pigments, 1752 Pigs, 147, 382, 1246-1248; foot and mouth disease, 306; teeth, 1583; uterus, 1312 Pikaia, 208 Pikas, 1344-1346 Pileated woodpeckers, 1126, 1702 Pillar cells, 973 Pilot whales, 376, 378 Piltdown man, 442 Pincus, Gregory, 1217 Pine martins, 1675 Pinhole eyes, 520 Pink salmon, 1443 Pinna, 402, 739, 1752 Pinnipeds, 985, 998, 1241, 1466, 1752; flippers, 592; herds, 753 Pinophyta, 620 Piping hares, 535 Piranhas, 552 Pisces, 1241 Pit vipers, 1137, 1523, 1582, 1752 Pitch, 1752 Pitch discrimination, 739 Pithecanthropos jefferyi, 394 Pithecophaga jefferyi, 735 Pituitary gland, 462, 805, 1385, 1390 Placenta, 130-131, 229, 984, 1249, 1312, 1752 Placental lactogen, 916, 1251 Placental mammals, 541, 984, 1241 Placodermi, 1752 Placoid denticles, 1453, 1752 Placozoa, 1240 Plague, 363 Plains bison, 175 Plains pocket gophers, 676 Plains zebras, 817 Planarians, 603; regeneration, 1364 Plankton, 995, 1001, 1752 Plant and animal interactions, 615 Plant and animal, 1253-1258 Plant and animal interactions, 1253, 1258; coevolution, 243, 247;   herbivores, 745; insects, 874; pollination, 5, 101, 154 Plant hydras, 457 Plantigrade, 1752 Plantigrade locomotion, 966 Plants, 1079; desert, 326 Planula, 903, 1752 Planuloids, 1083 Plasma, 1226 Plasma cells, 847 Plasmasol, 832 Plasmodium, 1332 Plastron, 1396, 1622, 1752 Platanista gangetica, 376, 378 Plate tectonics, 1076, 1752; mass extinctions and, 506, 1206 Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), 807 Plateosaurus, 355 Platform reefs, 892 Plato, 491 Platyhelminthes, 39, 79, 603, 832, 890, 1081 Platypuses, 916, 984, 1059, 1259-1261; electroreception, 1474 Platyrrhini, 57, 1056, 1325 Pleistocene era, 1752 Pleistocene mass extinction, 508 Plesiadapis, 1325 Plesiosaurs, 1396 Plesiosaurus, 1319 Plethodontidae, 29-30, 1440 Pleurocoel, 1752 Plexus, 1752 Pliny the Elder, 1709 Pliopithecus, 58 Plumage, 583, 1752 Plumbeous kites, 732 Plymouth Rock chickens, 198 Poaching, 452, 1692 Pochards, 390 Pocock, R. I., 170 Podia, 973 Podites, 1752 Podocnemis expansa, 1623 Poikilotherms, 249, 1025, 1600, 1663, 1752; estivation, 473 Point-quarter technique of population analysis, 269 Poison dart frogs, 1265 Poisonous animals, 1262-1265; black widow spiders, 1533; box jellyfish, 1586; centipedes, 185;   fangs, 1582; jellyfish, 902; learning and, 937; lizards, 960; platypuses, 1259;   reptiles, 1398; scorpions, 64; shrews, 1500; snakes, 1523; spiders, 65, 1532 Poisons, 245 Polar bears, 92, 95, 1266-1268, 1620. See also Bears Polar coordinate model of regeneration, 1367 Polarization; vision and, 1651 Policipediformes, 125 Pollen analysis and paleoecology, 1195 Pollination, 1255; coevolution and, 245 Pollution; death and, 304; diseases and, 360; eagles and, 395; ecosystems and, 426;   effects, 1269-1274; shellfish and, 221; skin and, 1503; urban and suburban wildlife   and, 1633; wildlife management and, 1692 Polo, Marco, 1691 Polybranchygamy, 1018 Polychaete worms, 999 Polychaetes, 1706 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1272 Polyestrous, 1752 Polygamy, 1019, 1191, 1380, 1752 Polygyny, 1158 Polymerase, 1100 Polymorphism, 1752 Polymorphisms, 1129 Polypeptides, 461 Polyphyletic, 1752 Polyplacophora, 1048 Polyplcophora, 1498 Polyps, 904, 1752 Polyspermy, 586 Polytelis alexandrae, 1213 Pond snails, 1518 Pongidae, 57, 783, 823, 1326 Ponies, 816 Pons, 143, 1120 Population, 1752; habitats and, 709; migration and, 1037; natural selection and,   1106; speciation and, 1340 Population analysis, 269, 320, 1275-1278, 1752; aging and, 13; life spans   and, 949; mark, release, and recapture methods, 1005; point-quarter   technique, 269; wildlife management and, 1693 Population biology, 117, 150 Population cycles, 410 Population decline, frog and toad, 641 Population density, 1752 Population dynamics, 410 Population ecology, 713 Population fluctuations, 1279-1284; foxes, 634; pollution and, 1270; predation and, 1306 Population genetics, 117, 725, 1139, 1285-1290; gene flow and, 661 Population growth, 321, 1291-1297, 1380; environment and, 416 Population regulation, 419, 1752 Population size, 1007; genetic drift and, 1140 Porcelain crabs, 288 Porcupines, 645, 1298-1300, 1431; defense mechanisms, 315 Pore canals, 1753 Porifera, 39, 79, 141, 889, 1082, 1535 Porphyrin rings, 1414 Porphyrins, 582 Porpoises, 375, 379 Portuguese man-o'-wars, 996 Positional information, 1753 Positive assortative mating, 1139 Positive chemotaxis, 1514 Positive feedback loops, 462 Positive pressure breathing, 1415 Postdisplacement, 758, 1753 Posterior pituitary hormone, 462 Post-extinction recoveries, 514 Postmating mechanisms, 894 Postnatal molt, 1054 Postnuptial molt, 1753 Postorbital bar, 1324 Postzygotic mechanisms, 894 Potamotrygonidae, 1489 Potassium-argon dating, 11, 1206 Pottos, 527 Prairie dogs, 687; black-footed ferrets and, 262; black-tailed, 979; plague bacteria and, 363 Prairie squirrels, 676 Prairies, 686-689 Praying mantis, 1301-1303; cannibalism and, 163 Precambrian era, 1753 Precipitation, desert, 326 Precocial, 1753 Precocial species, 1155, 1249 Predation, 105, 259, 314, 1304-1309, 1753; aging and, 15;   bills, 91; bioluminenscence, 120; camouflage, 161; claws, 223; coevolution and, 245;   communities and, 261; crabs, 289; deer, 312; dinosaur, 16; eagles, 394; ecological   niches and, 410; groups and, 699; herds and, 750; hominids, 787; human, 305; hyenas, 836;   imprinting and, 851; infanticide and, 857; insects, 874; learning and, 936; marine   animals, 998; metamorphosis and, 1029; mimicry and, 1042; molting and, 501; natural   selection, 4; nocturnal animals, 1135; offspring care and, 1156; owls, 1183; packs and, 1187;   paleoecological signs, 1196; praying mantis, 1301; scavengers and, 1456; sharks, 1488;   shells and, 1498; sleep and, 1510; social systems and, 978; symbiosis versus, 1557; tool   use, 1613; urban and suburban wildlife and, 1636; velociraptors, 1640; venom and, 1262;   wasps, 866; zooplankton and, 1714 Predator-prey relationships, 4, 417, 1557; population fluctuations and, 1280 Predentary bone, 1753 Predisplacement, 757, 1753 Preening, 695, 1753 Preformation, 440 Prefrontal cortex, 145 Pregnancy, 130, 1310-1315; estrus and, 477; lactation and, 916;   seahorses, 1192, 1464 Prehensile, 1753 Prehistoric animals, 11, 1316-1322 Premack, David, 933 Premating mechanisms, 894 Prenatal, 1310-1315 Prenatal development, 1310, 1315 Prenuptial molt, 1054 Preservation, 630 Pressure and gas exchange, 652 Prezygotic mechanisms, 894 Prides, 172, 955 Primary consumer, 1753 Primary emotions, 1753 Primary feathers, 1753 Primary producers, 1079 Primary production, 1753 Primary sensory areas, 1122 Primates, 57, 790, 823, 986, 1056, 1168, 1241, 1323-1329, 1753; Asia, 534,   537; brain, 144; estrus, 476; ethology and, 481; Goodall, Jane, 202; gorillas, 679;   howler monkeys, 551; intelligence, 885; language, 933; learning, 886; lemurs, 943;   molecular clocks for, 1132; social systems, 978; tool use, 1613; vocalizations, 1658 Primer pheromone, 1753 Primer pheromones, 1233, 1515 Primitive, 1753 Primordial soup, 1084 Princess parrots, 1213 Principle of antithesis, 1753 Prions, 363 Prismatic layer, 1753 Pristidae, 1489 Proanura, 29 Problem solving, 938 Proboscidea, 1584, 1629 Proboscis, 606, 1753 Proboscis monkeys, 538 Procellariiformes, 125 Prochaska, Georg, 1357 Proconsul, 58 Procuticle, 500 Procyon, 1347 Procyonidae, 92, 1347 Producers, 259, 266, 409, 418, 424, 614, 618, 1253, 1333, 1753 Productivity, 425 Proenzymes, 345 Progenesis, 758, 1753 Progesterone, 463-464, 476, 649, 798, 916, 1251, 1311, 1385, 1753 Proglottid, 1753 Proglottids, 604 Programmed death theory, 952 Programmed movements, 1037 Prokaryotes, 361, 486, 1080, 1239, 1568, 1753 Prolactin, 462, 799, 805, 916, 1029, 1425, 1753 Promiscuity, 1018, 1191, 1753; courtship and, 286 Pronghorns. See American pronghorns Proprioception, 1474 Prosauropods, 355, 1446 Prosencephalon, 143 Prosimians, 1753 Prosimii, 57 Prosoma, 820 Prostaglandins, 461, 807 Prostate, 1392 Prostomium, 1706 Protandrous species, 755, 1020 Protandry, 1754 Protective mimicry, 1754 Protective species, 317 Proteidae, 30 Protein buffer system, 1227 Protein hormone, 1754 Protein hormones, 804 Proteins, 1147, 1754; prions, 363 Prothoracic gland, 1754 Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), 459, 1030, 1754 Protista, 487, 1330 Protists, 1754 Protoceratops, 356, 1641 Protochordates, 466 Protogrammar, 1754 Protogynous species, 755 Protogyny, 1754 Protolanguage theory, 931 Protonotaria citrea, 1127 Protopteridae, 969 Protopterus, 473 Protopterus aethiopicus, 969 Protopterus amphibius, 969 Protopterus annectens, 969 Protopterus dolloi, 969 Protostomes, 1754 Protosuchia, 295 Protozoa, 889, 1330-1335, 1713, 1754; Antarctica, 530; hydrostatic   skeletons, 832; ingestion, 859; locomotion, 964; parasites, 363; reflexes in, 1358;   shells, 1496; termites and, 1589 Protozoology, 1332 Proximal, 1754 Prussian Academy of Sciences, Germany, 886 Przewalski's horses, 815 Przewalski's horses, 451 Przibaum, Hans, 254 Psalterium, 1436 Pseudidae, 31 Pseudocoel, 1754 Pseudocoelomates, 833 Pseudocopulation, 277 Pseudopods, 965, 1331, 1754; hydrostatic skeletons and, 832; ingestion and, 859 Pseudoscorpions, 284 Psittacidae, 1212 Psittaciformes, 126, 1575 Psittacus erithacus, 933 Psittacus erithracus, 1213 Psuedocoelom, 1433 Psychology, 444, 940; ethology and, 481; instincts and, 880 Ptarmigans, 533-534, 1619 Pteranodon, 1319 Pterobranchs, 205 Pterodactyloidea, 1337 Pterodactylus, 1336 Pterosaurs, 1319, 1336-1338; flight and, 612; wings, 1696 Ptychozoon, 1698 Pubis, 1754 Puboischiac bar, 592 Puddle ducks, 389 Pudus, 311 Puff adders, 1264 Pugmarks, 1754 Pukus, 524 Pulley joint, 467 Pulmonary circuit, 743 Pulmonary systems, 1243 Pulmonata, 891 Pulvilli, 606 Pumas, 577, 1073 Pumping mechanisms in respiration, 653 Punctuated equilibrium, 1339, 1343, 1754 Pupa, 1754 Pupae, 1030; flies, 606 Pupillary reflex, 1359 Purines, 1505 Purple finches, 1525 Purring, 170 Pursuit, 166 Pycnopodia helianthodes, 1542 Pygmy anteaters, 71 Pygmy hippopotamus, 769 Pygmy mouse lemurs, 943 Pygmy seahorses, 1463 Pygostyle, 1321 Pyramid of numbers, 423, 1754 Pyramids (brain), 1120 Pythons, 1523, 1575 Q Quadrats, 1005, 1281, 1754 Quadrupeds, 1754 Quadrupeds and locomotion, 966 Quagga Breeding Project, 818 Quaggas, 818 Quahogs, 220 Quail, 197, 200 Quarantines, 1646 Quarter-power scaling law, 951 Quetzalcoatlus, 1319, 1336, 1697 Quetzals, 551 Quills, 315, 642, 1298, 1754; porcupines, 645 Quinone, 316 R r and K selection model, 1380 r selection, 1380 r strategy, 233, 1481 R strategy, 1754 Rabbits, 986, 1344-1346; Australia, 539, 544, 1109; domestication, 383; hierarchies,   766; lactation, 917; uterus, 1312 Rabies, 305, 361, 1645, 1754 Rabies virus, 364 Raccoons, 1347, 1349, 1552, 1637; carnivores, 168; defense   mechanisms, 315; dormancy, 762; red pandas and, 1209; scavengers, 1457 Rachis, 582 Radial sesamoid, 1754 Radial symmetry, 1365, 1754; coral, 280 Radiation and mutations, 487, 661 Radiochronometry, 1754 Radioisotopes, 1754 Radiolaria, 1497 Radiolarians, 1332 Radula, 861, 1049, 1160, 1517, 1587, 1754 Raff, Rudolf, 339 Rails, 453 Rain forests, 71, 107, 567, 711, 1350-1353; Asia, 534; biodiversity   and, 617; endangered species and, 454; extinction and, 510; habitat destruction, 713; South America, 578 Rain shadow effect, 326 Rainbow trout, 1443 Rajidae, 1489 Ram ventilation, 1415 Ramapithecus, 58, 790 Ramapithicus, 823 Rami, 1754 Rana catesbeiana, 328 Random damage theory, 952 Random genetic drift, 1140, 1754 Random mating, 726, 1755 Random mutation, 271 Rangifer tarandus, 382, 1370 Ranidae, 30 Rank distinctions, 765 Rankin, Catherine H., 718 Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 1510, 1755 Raptors, 731, 1136; infanticide among, 856 Rat kangaroos, 905 Ratfish, 1490 Ratites, 1176 Rats, 539, 1033-1035, 1431, 1637; lactation, 917; naked   mole, 977; reproduction, 1429; uterus, 1312 Rattlesnakes, 328, 1137, 1263; fangs, 1582; tails, 1575 Rattus norvegicus, 1033 Ravens, 328, 533 Ray-finned fishes, 595 Ray, John, 1566, 1570, 1710 Rays, 1487-1492; osmoregulation, 1172; scales, 1453 Reabsorption, 909 Réaumur, René-Antoine Ferchault de, 100 Recapitulation, 337, 1755 Recapture. See Mark, release, and recapture methods Recaptured, 1755 Receptive fields, 1474, 1755 Receptor, 1755 Receptor cells, 1472, 1755 Receptor molecule, 1755 Receptor potential, 1472, 1755 Receptor saturation, 1472 Recessive, 1755 Reciprocal relationship, 1755 Reciprocal sacrifice, 20, 1755 Reciprocal signaling, 367 Recrystallization, 630 Rectrices, 1702, 1755 Recycling, 418, 423, 614 Red blood cells, 1402 Red cells, 742 Red Cross; veterinary medicine and, 1647 Red deer, 625 Red kangaroos, 905 Red nucleus, 1121 Red pandas, 1209, 1347, 1349 Red salmon, 1443 Red squirrels, 1538 Red-tailed hawks, 732, 1636 Red tides, 1332 Red tree voles, 262 Red wolves, 269, 371 Rediae, 604 Redpolls, 1525 Reefs, 280, 892, 1354-1356; coral, 281; eels, 430; food webs   and, 617; Micronesia, 573; protective habitats, 317 Reflecting superposition eyes, 521 Reflex arc, 1358, 1755 Reflexes, 35, 1357-1363; annelids, 142; erection, 1392; instincts and, 880; language and, 931 Refractory periods, 800, 1095 Regan, Tom, 306 Regeneration, 100, 456, 1364-1369; defense mechanisms, 318; flatworms,   603; starfish, 1541; tails, 1574; worms, 1706 Regulative development, 1755 Reindeer, 147, 311, 382, 532, 534, 1370-1372, 1437 Reintroduction of extinct species, 238 Reissner's membrane, 738 Relaxation, heart, 741 Relaxin, 463 Release. See Mark, release, and recapture methods Releaser, 1359, 1755 Releaser pheromone, 1755 Releaser pheromones, 1233, 1514 Releasing factors, 1385 Remnants, 1755 Remoras, 591, 1558 Renal systems, 1243 Renin, 463 Repellant pheromones, 1233 Replacement hypothesis of Neanderthal taxonomy, 1116 Replication; fossilization and, 1199 Repressor genes, 1102 Reproduction, 646, 754, 1018, 1373-1378, 1477; aging and, 14; asexual, 79,   81; carrion beetles, 1457; courtship, 283; domestication and, 381; endocrine systems   and, 461; fish, 597; frogs, 640; groups and, 698; growth and, 705; in vitro fertilization   and, 587; invertebrates, 456; mating and, 1016; mice and rats, 1033; molting and, 1054;   natural selection and, 1106; nutrient requirements and, 1147; pair-bonding, 1191;   parthenogenesis, 1215; pheromones and, 368; pollution and, 1271; population growth   and, 1292; sponges, 1536; Tasmanian devils, 1579; territoriality and, 1595; veterinary   medicine and, 1647; wasps, 1667 Reproductive, 1385-1394 Reproductive biotechnology and cloning, 236 Reproductive cycles, 1387 Reproductive mode, 1755 Reproductive patterns, 322 Reproductive strategies, 1379-1384, 1755; asexual reproduction, 80;   copulation, 277; domestication, 147; ecology and, 415; ichthyosaurs, 844; spiders, 65; white sharks, 1688 Reproductive success, 1755 Reproductive systems, 36; female mammals, 1385, 1389; male mammals, 1390,   1394; pheromones and, 1233; primates, 1324 Reproductives, 1755 Reptantia, 301-302 Reptiles, 42, 469, 567, 922, 1241, 1318, 1395-1400, 1642, 1755;   brain, 143; chameleons, 188; circulatory systems, 217; dinosaurs, 354; estivation, 474;   Europe, 556; flying, 1698; Galápagos Islands, 559; hearts, 743; ichthyosaurs, 842;   monotremes and, 1059; noses, 1144; Pacific Islands, 571; pH maintenance, 1228; pterosaurs, 1336;   regeneration, 1364; sauropods, 1446; scales, 1454; shedding, 1053; skin, 1504; skin   shedding, 1503; snakes, 1520; thermoregulation, 250; wings, 1696 Requiem sharks, 1488 Reservoir host, 1755 Resilience stability, 262, 1755 Resistance stability, 261 Resolution; vision and, 521 Resource, 1755 Resource defense, 1755 Resource-holding potential, 1755 Respiration, 1755; amphibian, 31; birds, 653, 1407, 1412; low oxygen   and, 1401-1406; osmoregulation and, 1171; water loss, 1402 Respiratory acidosis, 1228 Respiratory alkalosis, 1227 Respiratory medium, 1756 Respiratory pigment, 1402, 1756 Respiratory pigments, 1414 Respiratory surface, 1756 Respiratory system, 35, 651, 972, 1413-1418; aging and, 14;   amphibians, 637; estivation and, 473; insects, 873; thermoregulation and, 1601;   vocalizations and, 1654; water balance and, 1670 Response and learning, 936 Restriction, 1756 Restriction enzymes, 668 Retardation, 1756 Rete mirabile, 1688 Reticular formation, 1120 Reticulate, 1756 Reticulum, 351, 1436 Retina, 520-521, 1651, 1756 Retroviruses, 364 Reynolds numbers, 609, 1756 Rhabdom, 521 Rhabdomeres, 1652 Rhacophoridae, 31 Rhamphorhynchoidea, 1337 Rheas, 123, 577, 1177 Rheiformes, 123 Rhesus monkeys; hierarchies, 766 Rhincodon typus, 1488, 1679 Rhinoceroses, 108, 476, 524, 534, 537, 1419-1421, 1450, 1719; poaching, 452 Rhinocerotidae, 1419 Rhinodermatidae, 31 Rhipidistians, 595 Rhode Island Red chickens, 198 Rhodesian man, 792 Rhodnius, 459 Rhodopsin, 1651 Rhombencephalon, 143 Rhynchocephalia, 1397 Rhynchocoela, 213 Rhythms; migration and, 702 Rhythms and, 1422-1427 Rhythms and behavior, 1422, 1427, 1707 Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 180, 332, 648, 662, 805, 1316, 1756 Ribose, 1148 Ribosome, 180 Ribosomes, 1756 Ricinulei, 66 Rift Valley fever, 305 Right whales, 1685 Rinderpest, 528 Ring doves, 798 Ring-tailed lemurs, 943 Ringed seals, 1467 Ringhals, 1582 Ringworm, 363 Rissa tridactyla, 1125 Ritual; displays, 367; grooming and, 695 Ritualization, 1756 River dolphins, 375 River otters, 551, 1179, 1674 River stingrays, 1489 Rivers, 97, 709, 920-924; eels, 429; pollution, 1270 rmax, 1293 Roaches. See Cockroaches Roaring, 170 Robins, 1191 Rock hyraxes, 839 Rock lobsters, 302 Rock sparrows, 1526 Rockhopper penguins, 1222 Rocky Mountain goats, 47, 673 Rocky Mountain locusts, 684 Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, 1077 Rodents, 986, 1137, 1428-1432; beavers, 97; Central America, 549;   coniferous forests and, 623; estivation, 474; ethology and, 481; gophers, 676; infanticide, 857;   ingestion, 861; lactation, 917; plague and, 876; porcupines, 1298; scales, 1454;   social organizations, 979 Rods, 522, 1651 Roots, hair, 642 Ross seals, 1467-1468 Rostral bone, 1756 Rostrhamus hamatus, 733 Rostrhamus sociabilis, 733 Rosy finches, 1525 Rotifers, 79, 890; Antarctica, 530; ingestion, 860 Round-tailed ground squirrels, 329, 474 Roundworms, 40, 667, 1433-1435, 1560, 1647; diseases and, 363;   estivation, 473; nervous systems, 142 Roux, Wilhelm, 441 Rowing, 609 Rowing beetles, 106 Royal antelope, 44 Royal Geographical Society, 1111 Royal jelly, 1756 Royal penguins, 1222 Rubner, Max, 951 Ruddy ducks, 391 Rudimentary, 1756 Rudman, William B., 1254 Rufous crab-hawks, 733 Rufous hummingbirds, 829 Rumbaugh, Duane, 933 Rumen, 344, 351, 1436 Ruminants, 351, 1160, 1436-1438, 1756; anatomy, 36; camels, 157;   deer, 312; goats, 673; herbivores, 745; horns, 811; moose, 1062; reindeer, 1370;   rhinoceroses, 1419; ungulates, 1629 Running, 965 Rut, 1756 Rwandan Mountain Gorilla Project, 682 S Saber-toothed cats, 170 Saber-toothed tigers, 508 Sables, 556 Sacculus, 737 Sacrifice, reciprocal, 20 Saddlebill storks, 1547 Saggital, 1756 Saigas, 556 Saimaa seals, 1466, 1468 St. Albertus Magnus, 1710 St. Bernards, 370 Saint Cuthbert, 853 Saint-Hilaire, Étienne Geoffroy, 516 Salamanders, 29-30, 536, 1439-1442, 1552; cannibalism and, 163;   ears, 401; neotony and, 758; pollution and, 1272; taxonomy, 31 Salamandridae, 30, 1439 Salinity, 1756 Saliva, 344, 1756; mosquitoes, 1071 Salivary glands, 350 Salminoformes, 1583 Salmo, 1443 Salmon, 94, 109, 1443-1445; migration, 1004; smell and spawning, 1515 Salmonella, 362 Salmonidae, 1443 Salps, 206 Salt levels, 462 Salt tolerance in crocodiles, 296 Saltators, 1525 Salts, 1170 Saltwater crocodiles, 297 Salvelinus, 1443 Sampling, 1756 Sampling effect, 1140 San Diego Zoo, California, 238 Sand crabs, 303 Sand dollars, 407 Sand dunes, 1606 Sandhill cranes, 292 Sandworms; tentacles, 1586 Saprovore, 1756 Saprovores, 861 Sapsuckers, 1703 Sarah (chimpanzee), 933 Sarcodina, 1332, 1496 Sarcomastigophora, 832, 1496 Sarcomere, 1088, 1756 Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 1756 Sarcopterygii, 506, 969 Sargasso Sea; eels, 429 Sauria, 1397, 1520 Saurischia, 1756 Saurischians, 328, 354, 1446, 1639 Sauromalus, 961 Sauropods, 17, 54, 138, 354, 1446-1449, 1544, 1756 Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 887, 932-933 Savannas, 44, 524, 686, 1450-1452 Savi's pygmy shrews, 1500 Sawfish, 1489 Scala media, 738 Scala naturae, 491 Scala tympani, 738 Scala vestibuli, 738 Scale of being, 491, 1756 Scales, 845, 1319, 1453-1455; butterflies, 153; duck legs, 388;   endoskeletons and, 467; feathers and, 582; fish, 594; hair, 642; reptiles, 1395; snakes, 1521 Scaling law, quarter-power, 951 Scallops, 1048 Scapanus townsendii, 1045 Scaphopoda, 1050, 1499 Scarab beetles, 106, 1456 Scarabs, 105 Scarlet-billed black swans, 1554 Scatterhoarding, 1539 Scaups, 390 Scavengers, 409, 866, 1160, 1451, 1456-1459, 1634, 1756; crabs, 289;   foxes, 635; hyenas, 836; insects, 874; lions, 955; paleoecology and, 1196; snakes, 1523; vultures, 1660 Scharrer, Ernst, 457 Scheller, Richard, 883 Schema, 1756 Schistocera perigrina, 683 Schistosomes, 1560 Schizomida, 64 Schleiden, Matthias, 1710 Schmidt, G., 441 Schmitz, H., 1475 Schnabel method, 1008 Schubiger, Gerold, 1366 Schwann, Theodor, 1710 Scientific experimentation on animals, 306 Sciuridae, 1538 Sciuridae sciurini, 1127 Sciurus carolinensis, 1127, 1538 Sciurus niger, 1127 Scleractinia, 280 Scleroglossa, 960 Sclerospongiae, 1535 Sclerotin, 501, 1756 Scolopendridae, 185 Scolophores, 400 Scorpaenidae, 1264 Scorpionida, 328 Scorpions, 40, 63, 328, 1137, 1460-1462; brain, 142; poisonous, 1262; whip-tailed, 64 Scotopic conditions, 522 Scrapie, 363 Screamers, 388 Screwworms, 608 Scrotum, 1391, 1485 Scutellate, 1756 Scutes, 1396 Scutigeridae, 186 Sea anemones, 832, 889, 1091, 1559 Sea cows, Steller's, 108 Sea cucumbers, 407, 539; evisceration, 318, 407; ingestion, 860 Sea daisies, 407 Sea ducks, 390 Sea eagles, 394 Sea hares, 718; gills, 973 Sea lilies, 406 Sea lions; emotions, 446; flippers, 592; grooming, 694 Sea mice, 1456 Sea otters, 1003, 1180, 1674; tool use, 1613 Sea robins, 591 Sea slugs, 1517; gills, 973; tidepools, 1607 Sea snakes, 1264, 1523 Sea squirts, 205, 469 Sea trout, 1443 Sea turtles, 1623 Sea urchins, 407, 1003; defense mechanisms, 315; endocrine systems, 458; ingestion, 861 Seabirds and seals Seahorses, 1463-1465; pair-bonding, 1192 Seals, 431, 449, 1466-1470; Finland, 556; flippers, 592; grooming, 694; lactation, 916;   monk, 557; northern fur, 477 Seals, elephant. See Elephant seals Seasonal isolation, 895 Seasons and shedding, 1055 Secondary emotions, 1756 Secondary feathers, 1756 Secondary metabolites, 315, 317, 1757 Secondary palate, 1757 Secretary birds, 527 Secretin, 461, 464 Secretion, 909 Seedcrackers, black-bellied, 90 Segment polarity genes, 777, 1757 Segmentation, 776, 1066, 1757 Segmentation genes, 776, 1757 Segmented worms. See Worms, segmented Segregation, law of, 665 Sei whales, 1685 Seismosaurus, 1446, 1448-1449 Selachii, 1487 Selection, 1107, 1757 Selection regimes, 1280 Selective pressure, 1757 Self; antigens, 846; immune system and, 361; nonself versus, 845 Self-consciousness, 445-446 Self-fertilization; hermaphrodites and, 1020 Self-grooming, 693 Selfish gene, 1286 Selfish herd effect, 699, 751 Semelparous species, 1157, 1382 Semen, 1757 Semilunar valves, 743 Seminal vesicles, 1392 Seminiferous tubules, 1391 Semiochemical, 1757 Semiochemicals, 1232 Semnopithecus entellus, 857 Sense organs, 39, 737, 1471-1476; camouflage and, 161; display   interpretation, 367; endoskeletons and, 467; mollusks, 1051; nocturnal animals, 1136; vision, 1650 Sensilla, 1757 Sensitive period, 1757; imprinting and, 851 Sensitivity; vision and, 521 Sensitization, 716, 721, 936, 1757; reflexes and, 1360; sensory, 1472 Sensory neurons, 1119 Sensory reception and the brain, 141 Sensory systems in lizards, 960 Sensory threshold, 1472 Sepia, 1152 Septa, 1757 Septum, 1757 Sequential hermaphrodite, 1757 Sequential hermaphroditism, 754 Sequester, 1757 Sequestration, 315 Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, 528 Serotonin, 718 Serpent eagles, 395, 733 Serpentes, 1397, 1520 Serres-Meckel law, 338 Serres, E. R., 337 Serum albumin, 1132 Serums, 1646 Sessile, 1757 Setae, 501, 1757 Sex determination, 754, 866; crocodiles, 297; lizards, 959 Sex differences; evolutionary, 1477-1482; evolutionary origin, 1482; hormones and, 799 Sex hormones, 1757 Sex-limited traits, 754, 1757 Sex pheromone, 1757 Sex ratios, 323, 1275 Sex-role reversal, 1757 Sex-role-reversed parenting, 1158 Sexual, 1483-1486 Sexual development, 1483, 1486; grooming and, 694 Sexual dimorphism, 754, 1478, 1757; reproduction and, 1375 Sexual imprinting, 851 Sexual reproduction, 283, 1757 Sexual selection, 287, 1107-1108, 1374, 1478, 1757; tails and, 1575 Sexual swelling, 1757 Sexually selected infanticide, 856-857 Shaft, 1757; feathers, 582; hair, 642 Shanidar man, 792 Sharks, 309, 1317, 1487-1492; birth, 132; cannibalism and, 163;   convergent evolution, 274; ears, 400; ingestion, 860; landlocked, 552; osmoregulation, 1172;   scales, 1453; scavengers, 1458; tails, 1576; whale, 1679-1681; white, 1687-1689 Sharks, white. See White sharks Sharksuckers, 591 Sheba (chimpanzee), 886 Shedding, 1757; crustaceans, 1497; elephant seals, 432; elk antlers, 438;   fur and hair, 643; horseshoe crabs, 820; skin, 1503; tails, 1573. See also Molting Sheep, 47, 147, 1493-1495, 1631; bighorn, 328; domestication, 382; foot and   mouth disease, 306; horns, 813; mouflon clones, 238; uterus, 1312; wool and, 643 Sheldgeese, 392 Shelducks, 389 Shells, 314, 1496-1499; armadillo, 72; bivalves, 220; crustacean, 288;   eggs, 132, 1395; fossilization and, 630; homes, 772; mollusks, 1048; nautiluses, 1153;   oysters, 1050; snails, 1517; turtles, 1396, 1622. See also Exoskeletons Sherman (chimpanzee), 887 Sherrington, Charles, 719, 1361 Shetland ponies, 817 Shivering and hibernation, 761 Shoebills, 527 Shorebirds, 125 Short-eared owls, 1635 Short-eared shrews, 1500 Short-toed snake eagles, 395 Shortfin makos, 1488 Shrew moles, 1045 Shrews, 1500-1501; echolocation, 402; heart rates, 742; nesting, 1126 Shrimp, 108, 301-302 Siberian cranes, 293 Siberian golden eagles, 396 Siberian tigers, 536, 1609 Siblicide, 857, 1158, 1757 Sideneck turtles, 1623 Sidewinding, 1522 Sierra Club, 1692 Sierra Nevadas, 191 Sifakas, 943 Sign language, 887 Sign stimulus, 1359 Signal, 1758 Signal pheromone, 1758 Signal pheromones, 1233 Signals; estrus, 476; hierarchies and, 766; pheromones, 1232 Silkworms, 154, 878; domestication, 384; endocrine systems, 459; metamorphosis, 1030 Silurian era, 1758 Silverback gorillas, 679 Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), 362, 526 Simple eyes, 520, 1651 Simultaneous hermaphroditism, 754, 1758 Singer Tract, Louisiana, 1704 Singer, Peter, 306 Sinoatrial node, 742 Sinus venosus, 742 Sinuses, 1758 Siphon tube, 1758 Sirenidae, 30; flippers, 592 Siskins, 1525 Sit-and-wait foraging, 1758 Size and life spans, 951 Skates, 1489; osmoregulation, 1172 Skeletal muscle, 1088, 1095 Skeletons; locomotion and, 963; muscles and, 1095; sponges, 1536. See also Endoskeletons Skin, 37, 845, 1453, 1502-1505; amphibians, 31, 637; amphibians and pollution, 1272;   chromatophorea, 189; claws, nails, and hooves and, 223; diseases and, 361; feathers and,   582; fur and hair and, 642; gas exchange and, 651, 1503; grooming, 693; growth of, 705;   hippopotamuses, 769; nematodes, 890; newts, 1439; primates, 1324; salamanders, 1439;   shedding, 1052; thermoregulation and, 566; turtles, 1622; waste excretion and, 909;   water balance and, 1670; whales, 1683; wings and, 1698 Skinks, 1573 Skinner, B. F., 1362 Skuas, 534 Skull, 467; bones, 136; gharials, 298; hominid, 791; horns and   antlers, 811; ichthyosaurs, 842; snakes, 1523; Triceratops, 1616 Skunks, 1506-1508, 1637, 1674; defense mechanisms, 316; dormancy, 762 Slaughtering, 305 Sleep, 718, 1509-1513; hibernation and, 761; hormones and, 799 Sleeping sickness, 528 Sleepwalking; animals and, 1512 Sleepy lizards, 958 Slender-billed kites, 733 Slime eels, 927 Sloth bears, 95 Sloths, 2, 71, 74, 1350 Slotting, 1758 Slow muscle, 1758 Slugs, 1048, 1160. See Snails Smell, 1144, 1473, 1514-1516; butterflies and moths, 152; displays, 368;   dogs, 373; estrus and, 476; imprinting and, 851; pheromones and, 1234; salmon migration   and, 1004; scavengers, 1456; snakes, 1523; spiders, 1533 Smith, J. L. B., 506 Smith, James Edward, 1567 Smith, William, 629 Smooth muscle, 1096 Snail darters, 453 Snail kites, 733 Snailing, 1758 Snails, 1048, 1160, 1517-1519, 1551; estivation, 473; ingestion, 861;   land, 573; locomotion, 965; nervous systems, 142 Snake eagles, 395, 733 Snakes, 1137, 1397, 1520-1524, 1551; anacondas, 579; black mambas, 527;   brown tree, 571; Caribbean, 547; Central America, 552; courtship, 285; ears, 401;   ingestion, 861; life spans, 952; locomotion, 965; Madagascar, 562; Pacific Islands, 570;   poisonous animals, 1264; scales, 1454; sea, 1264; shedding, 1053; skin shedding, 1503;   teeth and fangs, 1582; venom, 1262 Snapping turtles, 1551 Snares penguins, 1222 Sneezing, 1146 Snow buntings, 534 Snow geese, 658, 1139 Snow leopards, 170, 449, 946 Snowshoe hares, 1280; lynx and, 410 Snowy owls, 533, 1185, 1619, 1635 Social grooming, 1758 Social insects; hornets, 1666 Social systems; herds and, 752; hermaphrodites and, 755; hierarchies,   765; insects, 142; mammals, 977-982 Social wasp, 1758 Sociality, 1758 Socialization; imprinting and, 852 Society for the Protection of Prespa (SPP), Greece, 557 Sociobiology, 869, 1711, 1758; ethology, 482 Sockeye salmon, 1443 Sodium chloride, 1170 Soil Conservation Service, 1692 Sokolov, E. N., 717 Soldiers, 1758 Solenodons, 1126 Solenopsis saevissima, 867 Soleus muscle, 1095 Solitary, 1758 Solnhofen Limestone Formation, Germany, 68, 631, 843, 1336 Solo man, 792 Somatic afferents, 1120 Somatic efferent nervous system, 1120 Somatic mutations theory, 952 Somatocrinin, 462 Somatomedin, 462 Somatostatin, 462 Somatotropin (STH), 462 Somite, 1758 Somites, 229 Songbirds, 1525 Sorensen, William, 1416 Soricidae, 1500 Sotalia fluviatilis, 376 Sound frequency, 1655, 1758 Sound intensity, 1758 Sound waves, 738 South American fauna. See Fauna: South America South American lungfish, 969 Spadefoot toads, 474 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 256 Sparrow hawks, 732 Sparrows, 1525-1529, 1634; dusky seaside, 453; white-crowned, 800, 938; white-throated, 1425 Spawning; lampreys, 926; salmon, 1443 Speciation, 1758; gene flow and, 662; isolating mechanisms and, 897 Species, 493, 1239, 1566, 1758; abundance, 1279; diversity, 7;   evolution, 487; formation, 1339; interactions, 410; selection, 1341; specialization,   411; territoriality and, 1592 Species jumping; diseases, 364 Species selection, 1758 Species-specific, 1758 Speciesism, 445 Specific defenses, 845 Specific metabolic rate, 1758 Specific metabolism, 1025 Speckled trout, 1444 Spectacle, 1758 Spectacled bears, 95 Spectral filters, 522 Speeman, Hans, 441 Speotyto cunicularia, 1183 Sperm, 130, 646, 705, 1373, 1386, 1390, 1478, 1483; endocrine systems and, 465 Sperm packets, 585 Sperm whales, 375, 378 Spermaceti, 376, 1758 Spermatids, 647 Spermatocytes, 647 Spermatogenesis, 441, 647, 1758 Spermatogonia, 647, 1391 Spermatophores, 284, 1440, 1758 Spermiogenesis, 647, 1758 Sphenisciformes, 123 Sphincter, 351, 1759 Sphyrnidae, 1488 Spicules, 1536, 1759 Spider monkeys, 767 Spiders, 40, 64, 1137, 1530-1534, 1551; black widow, 65; brain, 142; brown   recluse, 65; circulatory systems, 211; ears, 400; estivation, 473; funnel web, 65;   hunting, 65; ingestion, 862; poisonous, 1262; tool use, 1614; tracheas, 974 Spikehorns, 813 Spilornatus, 733 Spilornis klossi, 394 Spinal cord, 143, 1119, 1241, 1642; formation, 229; reflexes and, 1357; tails and, 1574 Spinal nerves, 1119 Spindle, 1759 Spines, 314, 642, 1264, 1498; exoskeletons and, 501; fins and, 591; monotremes, 1060; starfish, 1541 Spinners, 1532 Spinus lawrencei, 1526 Spiny anteaters, 279, 984, 1060. See Echidnas Spiny dogfish, 1488 Spiny lobsters, 290 Spiracle, 974 Spiracles, 606, 1414, 1759 Spiral duct, 738 Spittlebugs, 873 Spizaetus, 396, 732 Sponges, 39, 79, 141, 889, 1082, 1535-1537; immune system, 845; ingestion, 859; tidepools, 1607 Spongin, 1535, 1759 Spongocoel, 891 Spongy bone, 468 Sporine cells, 1082 Sporocysts, 604 Sporozoa, 1332 Spot-billed pelicans, 1221 Spotted hyenas, 836 Spotted owls, 109, 262, 453, 1128 Spotted skunks, 1507 Squaliolus laticaudus, 1487 Squalus acanthias, 1488 Squamata, 1397; lizards, 958; snakes, 1520 Squat lobsters, 303 Squid, 309, 1048, 1151-1154; bioluminescence, 119; brain, 142;   endocrine systems, 458; ingestion, 861; locomotion, 967; physiology, 1244; tentacles, 1587 Squirrels, 1431, 1538-1540; estivation, 474; nesting, 1126; prairie,   676; rhythms, 1423; tails, 1574 Stability thresholds; communities and, 263 Stabilizing selection, 1107 Stagmomantis carolina, 1301 Stalking, 166 Stanley, Steven, 1341 Stanwellia nebulosa, 1613 Stapes, 739 Star-nosed moles, 1046 Starfish, 406, 891, 1541-1543; beaches, 1606; endocrine systems, 458;   immune system, 845; tidepools, 1607 Starling, Ernest, 461 Starlings, 90, 1634 Startle response, 716, 936 Stasis, 1759 Status badge, 1759 Status signs, 366, 766 Steele, Edward J., 496 Stegosaurs, 54, 355, 1544-1546, 1759 Steller's sea eagles, 394 Steller's sea cows, 108 Stem cell, 1759 Steno, Nicolaus, 628 Stenohaline, 1759 Stenopterygius, 1320 Stenurella melanura, 49 Stepchildren and infanticide, 857 Steppes, 686 Stereoscopic vision, 1759 Stereotyped behaviors, 880, 1759 Steroids, 461, 804, 1759; pheromones and, 1233 Sticklebacks, 284 Stifftail ducks, 391 Stimulant pheromones, 1233 Stimuli, 1471 Stimulus, 716, 1759; generalization, 717; reflexes and, 1357 Stingers, 101, 1263, 1666 Stingrays, 1264, 1489; defense mechanisms, 315 Stink bugs, 316 Stirling, Ian, 1267 Stirrup (ears), 402 Stochastic clocks, 1130 Stochastic theory, 952 Stomach, 343, 350, 1759; cardiac, 405; pyloric, 405; ruminants, 1436 Stomadeum, 442 Stonefish, 1264 Storks, 1547-1549; marabou, 1458 Strangers and hierarchies, 766 Strategy, 1759 Stratigraphy, 1197, 1759 Stratum corneum, 1502 Stratum germinativum, 1502 Strepsirhini, 1325 Stretch reflex, 1358 Striated muscle, 964, 1088, 1095, 1759 Strigidae, 1183 Strigiformes, 126, 1182 Stringer, Christopher, 1116 Striped gophers, 676 Striped hyenas, 837 Striped skunks, 1507 Stromatolites, 1195 Strong acid, 1759 Struthioniformes, 123 Studbook, 1759 Sturgeon, 535 Sturnis vulgaris, 1634 Sturtevant, A. H., 1103 Stuttgart Museum, Germany, 844 Styracosaurus, 1320 Subbuteos, 731 Subjectivity and emotions, 444 Submersible, 1759 Submersibles, 308 Submucosa, 350 Submucous plexus, 351 Subspecies, 1759 Substantia nigra, 1120 Subungulates, 1759 Suburban wildlife. See Urban and suburban wildlife Succession, 1759 Suckers, 408, 1587 Suckling, 916 Sue (Tyrannosaurus), 1627 Sukumar, Raman, 1583 Sulfur-bottomed whales, 1682 Sulfur dioxide, 1270 Sulfuric acid, 1227 Sumatran rhinoceroses, 1421 Sumatran tigers, 1609 Sun bears, 95 Sunflower starfish, 1542 Superior colliculi, 1120 Supersaurus, 1449 Supreme Court, U.S., 453 Suricates, 1021 Surnia ulula, 1183 Survival; emotions and, 445; natural selection and, 1106 Survivorship, 1759 Survivorship patterns, 321 Sus domesticus, 382 Sus scrofa, 1247 Sus vittatus, 1246 Suspension feeding, 1148 Sustained annual yield, 1759 Sutton, Walter S., 666 Swainson's hawks, 732 Swallow-tailed kites, 732 Swamps, 1550-1553 Swans, 125, 388, 1554-1556; vocalizations, 1656 Swarms, grasshopper, 683 Sweating, 1665 Swifts, 126; Vaux's, 262 Swim bladder, 400, 592, 595, 1463, 1688, 1759 Swimming, 965 Swine fever, 305 Sylvicapra grimmia, 44 Symbiodinium microadriaticum, 1560 Symbiosis, 119, 245, 1080, 1557-1563, 1759; cleaning, 693; coral, 281;   fish, 597; rhinoceroses, 1419; termites and protozoa, 1589 Symbols and language, 930 Symmetry, 1365; bilateral versus radial, 405 Sympathetic nervous system, 1120 Sympatric, 1759 Symphilism, 1558 Synapse, 1759 Synapses, 1359 Synapsida, 1396 Synbranchus, 474 Syncerus caffer, 383 Synchronization, 1759 Synchronous muscles, 1089 Syncytial epidermis, 1502 Syndrome, 360 Syrinx, 1655, 1759 Systematics, 6, 38, 128, 1564-1572, 1760 Systemic, 1760 Systole, 217, 742 Systolic pressure, 1760 T T lymphocytes (T cells), 846 Tachyglossidae, 1059 Tachyglossus aculeata, 279 Tactile communication, 255 Tadorini, 392 Tadpoles, 638, 1760 Taenia solium, 1561 Tagmata, 75 Tagmatization, 1760 Taiga, 534 Tailorbirds, 1125 Tails, 97, 1573-1577; clines and, 232; defense mechansims, 318; flukes,   589; heteroceral, 1687; kangaroos, 905; regeneration in reptiles, 1364; salamanders, 1440;   sauropods, 1446; snakes, 1521; stegosaurs, 1546; tadpoles, 638; whales, 375 Talons, 224, 1760 Tamanda mexicana, 71 Tamanda tetradactyla, 71 Tamanduas, 71 Tanagers, 1525 Tansley, Arthur G., 423 Tapetum, 1760 Tapeworms, 363, 603, 890, 1558, 1647 Taphonomy, 629, 1196, 1760 Tapirs, 578, 626, 1630 Tar pits. See La Brea Tar Pits Tardigrades, 530 Target, 1760 Target cells, 809 Target organ, 1760 Tarsiers, 1137 Tarsioidea, 1325 Tarsius, 1325 Tasmanian devils, 542, 984, 1578-1580 Tasmanian tigers, 509, 541-542, 1014, 1578; cloning, 238 Tasmanian wolves. See Tasmanian tigers Taste and smell, 1514 Taste-aversion learning, 937 Tattersall, Ian, 1117 Tatum, Edward L., 1101 Taung child, 783 Tauratragus derbianus, 44 Tautomeric shifts, 1099 Tawny eagles, 396 Taxon, 1568, 1760 Taxonomy, 1238, 1569, 1710, 1760; Ray, John, 1570 Teats, 916, 1760 Tectonic plate, 1760 Tectorial membrane, 739 Tectum, 1121 Teeth, 314, 350, 1317, 1581-1585; aardvarks, 1; carnivore, 165, 246;   cartilaginous fish, 1487; cats, 171; crocodiles, 296; digestion and, 344; dinosaurs, 138;   dogs, 370; Edentates, 71; egg tooth, 89; elephant seals, 431; elephants, 434; endoskeletons and,   467; herbivores, 745; hominid, 58-60, 784; horses, 815; ingestion, 861; lagomorphs, 1344;   lemurs, 944; moose, 1063; moray eels, 430; pterosaurs, 1337; rays, 1489; rodents, 1428;   ruminants, 1436; sauropods, 1446; sharks, 1453; shrews, 1500; snakes, 1523; whales, 375 Tegmentum, 1120 Tegu lizards, 961 Tegument, 1502 Telencephalon, 143 Teleostei, 595 Teleosts, 1760 Tellico Dam, Tennessee, 453 Telomeres, 950 Telson, 820 Temnodontosaurus, 1319 Temnospondyli, 28 Temperate rain forests, 1350 Temperature; life spans and, 951; sex determination and, 1483 Temperature regulation. See Thermoregulation Temporal isolation, 895 Temporal summation, 1095 10 percent law, 616, 618 Tendaguru Hills, Tanzania, 138 Tennessee Valley Authority, 453 Tenodera aridifolia sinensis, 1301 Tenrecs, 527, 562 Tentacles, 1151, 1586-1588, 1760; digestion and, 349; ingestion and, 860; mollusks, 1050 Terathopius ecudatus, 395 Termites, 1, 867, 1589-1591; African, 868; birth, 131; nesting, 772,   1126; protozoa and, 1333 Termitidae, 1589 Terns, arctic, 1039 Terpenes, 1031 Terrace, Herbert, 933 Terrapene, 1622 Terrapins, 1622 Terrestrial, 1760 Territorial behavior, 1760 Territoriality, 1006, 1592, 1598; baboons, 83; cats, 172; competition   and, 266; courtship and, 283; crocodiles, 297; foxes, 634; gophers, 677; gorillas, 679;   hawks, 732; herds and, 752; hermaphrodites and, 755; hippopotamuses, 770; hummingbirds, 830;   hyraxes, 839; mice, 269; mountain lions, 1073; nesting and, 1127; reproduction and, 1374;   salamanders, 1440; seals and walruses, 1467; sex determination and, 1483; social organization   and, 979; tigers, 1610; vocalizations and, 1656 Testes, 646, 1391, 1484 Testosterone, 464, 649, 799, 1391, 1484 Testudines, 1396 Testudo, 1622 Tetanurans, 355 Tethytheres, 986 Tetracerus quadricornis, 47 Tetracerus quadricornis, 44 Tetrapoda, 1241 Tetrapods, 1760 Tettigoniidae, 683 Teuthoidea, 1151 Thalamus, 143, 1120 Thalattosuchia, 295 Thaliacea, 206 Thanatocoenoses, 1196 Thanatocoenosis, 1760 Theridiidae, 65 Thermogenesis, 1601, 1760 Thermoreceptors, 737 Thermoregulation, 5, 1599-1604, 1760; camels, 156; cold-blooded animals, 249; crocodiles, 298;   desert, 329; exoskeletons, 500; grooming and, 693; groups and, 699; hair raising   and, 1504; hibernation and, 761; kangaroos, 906; lizards, 1397; metabolism and, 1024;   noses and, 1145; pH and, 1228; preening and, 695; scrotum and, 1391; skin and, 1504;   sleep and, 1509; stegosaurs, 1545 Theropoda, 1760 Theropods, 16, 69, 354, 1321, 1446; velociraptors, 1639 Thomomyini, 676 Thomomys bulbivorus, 676 Thomson's model, 1576 Thoracic, 1760 Thoracic glands, 458 Thorax, 1760 Thorn birds, 1125 Thread snakes, 1523 Threadworms, 1433 Threat display, 1760 Threat displays, 367 Threatened species, 1760 Thrust, 966, 1760 Thumbs; pandas, 1209; primates, 1323 Thylacines. See Tasmanian tigers Thymine (T), 1099 Thyreophora, 1544 Thyroid gland, 464, 806 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 462 Thyrotropin, 462, 805 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone, 461 Thyroxine, 916, 1029 Tibetan antelope, 536 Ticks, 66; diseases and, 364; ingestion, 862 Tidal-flow, 653 Tidepools, 1605-1608 Tides, 1550, 1605-1606 Tiger beetles, 106 Tiger sharks, 1488 Tigerfish, 1583 Tigers, 170, 454, 536, 1609-1611; homes, 774; poaching, 452; Tasmanian, 541 Tigons, 1611 Timber wolves, 371 Time scales, 1279 Tinamiformes, 123 Tinamous, 123 Tinbergen, Nikolaas, 254 Tinbergen, Nikolaas, 480, 850, 880, 939 Tiny hawks, 731 Tissue, 1761 Tissue hypoxia, 1401 Tissues, cell, 179 Toads, 30-31, 329, 637-641, 1642; estivation, 474; poisonous, 1265; pollution and, 1272 Tolerated siblicide, 1158 Tolypeutes, 72 Tomarctus, 370 Tomistoma, 295 Tongue, 350; ingestion, 861; parrots, 1213; woodpeckers, 1702 Tongue prehension, 960 Tonic receptors, 1472, 1761 Tonicity, 1171 Tool use; chimpanzees, 202 Tool use, 1612-1615; chimpanzee, 203; intelligence and, 885; language   and, 931; Neanderthals, 1115; otters, 1180 Toothed whales. See Whales, toothed Torpedinidae, 1489 Torpid, 1761 Torpidity, 473 Torpor, 1664 Torrent ducks, 392 Tortoises, 1396, 1622-1625; estivation, 474; giant, 1623 Totipalmate, 1761 Totipotency, 331 Totipotent, 1761 Toucans, 551 Toxins, 952, 1761; diseases and, 360 Trace fossils, 1081, 1197, 1199 Tracheal system, 1761 Tracheas, 651, 972-976, 1413; arthropod, 76; spiders, 1532 Tracheoles, 974 Trachydosaurus rugosus, 958 Trackways, 752; hadrosaurs, 723; sauropods, 1448; Triceratops, 1616 Tract, 1761 Tragelaphus scriptus, 44 Tragelaphus strepsiceros, 44 Trail pheromones, 1233 Trait, 1761 Transcriptional repressor-activators, 1104 Transdetermination, 1368, 1761 Transduction, 1472, 1761 Transmembrane voltage, 1472 Transparency, 160 Transposons, 333 Transvaal Museum, South Africa, 783 Transverse tubules, 1089 Trap-door spiders, 1613 Traps; tool use, 1613 Tree hyraxes, 839 Tree ring analysis, 1195 Tree sparrows, 1527 Tree squirrels, 1127, 1538 Tremarctos ornatus, 95 Trematoda, 603 Trematodes, 1560 Trematosaurs, 28 Trial-and-error learning, 937 Triassic mass extinction, 508 Triceratops, 55, 356, 1616-1618; evolution, 273 Triceratops horridus, 1616 Trichechus inunguis, 991 Trichechus manatus manatus, 991 Trichechus senegalensis, 991 Trichechuus manatus latirostris, 991 Trichinella spiralis, 1434, 1561 Trichobothria, 1460 Trichonympha campanula, 889 Tricuspid valve, 218, 743 Tridacna gigas, 220 Trieste (submersible), 308 Triggers, sex change, 755 Trilobites, 75, 503, 1317 Trimethylamine oxide, 1488 Trimethylaminoxide (TMAO), 1172 Trimmatom nanus, 595 Trinkaus, Erik, 1116 Triploid, 1761 Tripodfish, 591 Trogoniformes, 126 Trogons, 126 Trophallaxis, 255, 867, 1761 Trophi, 890 Trophic cascade, 1003 Trophic hormones, 1761 Trophic level, 1761 Trophic levels, 259, 409, 418, 423-424, 614, 618, 1303, 1306, 1714 Trophic neurosecretions or hormones, 457 Trophoblast, 228, 441 Tropical forests, 625 Tropical giant clams, 1048 Tropical rain forests, 1350 Tropomyosin, 1089, 1761 Troponin, 1089, 1761 Trout, 1443-1445 True horn, 1761 True salmon, 1443 Trumpeter swans, 1555, 1656 Trunks; elephant seals, 431; elephants, 434, 747 Trypanosoma cruzi, 876 Trypanosomes, 1560 Trypanosomiasis, 528 Tsavo National Park, Kenya, 529 Tsetse flies, 524, 528, 607 Tuatara, 1396 Tube feet, 406, 834; echinoderms, 408; starfish, 1542 Tubercles of Montgomery, 916 Tuberculosis, 1646 Tubeworms; life spans, 952; vestimentiferan, 997 Tubule, 910, 1761 Tubulidentata, 1 Tumors, 364 Tundra, 564, 711, 1619-1621; Asia, 534 Tunicates, 41, 205, 469 Tunnels, 678 Tupinambis, 961 Turbellaria, 603 Turbinates, 1144, 1761 Turbulence, 1761 Turbulent flow, 611 Turisops truncatis, 376, 378 Turkey vultures, 1660 Turkeys, 126, 197, 200, 328, 383 Tursiops truncatus, 934 Turtles, 453, 1396, 1551, 1622-1625; Caribbean, 547; ears, 401;   estivation, 474; green sea, 1004; leatherbacks, 1396; scales, 1454 Tusks, 1581-1585; elephants, 434, 747; mammoths, 988; walruses, 1466 Twitch, 1761 Two Medicine Formation, Montana, 723 Two-toed unaus, 72 Tylopoda, 1436 Tympanal membranes, 400 Tympanic membrane, 738, 1761 Tyrannosaurus, 1626-1628 Tyrannosaurus rex, 17, 355; cannibalism and, 164 Tytonidae, 1182 U Ubiquitin, 587 Udder, 916 Ujung Kulon National Park, Java, 537 Ultrabithorax, 1104 Ultrasaurus, 1449 Ultraviolet (UV) light, 1100, 1271, 1652; vision and, 1651 Umbilical cord, 1250 Unaus, 72 Unconditioned stimuli, 1360 Ungulates, 225, 986, 1629-1632, 1761; Africa, 524; elk, 438; foot and   mouth disease, 306; goats, 673; herds and, 750; hooves, 223; pigs, 1247; rhinoceroses, 1419;   social organization, 979; whale ancestors, 375; whales and, 1682 Unguligrade, 1761 Unicellular, 1761 Unidirectional flow, 741 Uniformitarianism, 505, 516, 1194, 1761 Uniramia, 75 Uniramous, 1761 Univalves, 1048 Unken reflex, 1440 Unmyelinated axons, 1120 Upper Paleolithic era, 1761 Urban and suburban wildlife, 1633-1638; coyotes, 373; nesting, 1127; nocturnal animals,   1138; opossums, 1164; raccoons, 1348 Urea, 1488, 1761; uric acid and, 909 Ureter, 909 Urethra, 909, 1392, 1484 Urination and osmoregulation, 1171 Urine, 1670; pheromones and, 1233 Urochordata, 205, 1713 Urogenital groove, 1484, 1761 Urophgial gland, 695 Uropygi, 64 Ursidae, 92 Ursus americanus, 95 Ursus malayanus, 95 Ursus arctos, 95 Ursus maritimus, 95 Ursus thibetanus, 95 Ursus ursinus, 95 Uterine cycle, 464 Uterus, 1249, 1310, 1386, 1761 Utriculus, 737 V Vacant niche theory, 411 Vagina, 1386, 1484 Valves, 1761; heart, 743 Vampire bats, 578; ingestion, 862 Van Lawick, Hugo, 202 Vane, 1762 Vane (feathers), 582 Varanus, 961 Variability, 1285; neutral mutations and, 1129 Vas deferens, 1392 Vascular papilla, 1762 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, 464 Vasoconstriction, 1601 Vasodilation, 1601 Vasopressin, 805 Vaux's swifts, 262 Vector, 1762 Veins, 218, 1762 Velociraptors, 1639-1641 Velvet, 311, 438, 812, 1063, 1762 Venison, 311 Venom, 1262, 1762; black widow spiders, 1533; fangs and, 1581; fins   and, 591; snakes, 1523; spiders, 1532; wasps, 1666 Venous system, vertebrate, 216 Ventilation, 651, 1762; measuring, 654; oxygen and, 1402; rates, 1417 Ventricles, 741, 1762 Ventrobronchi, 1408 Venules, 216 Venus' flower basket, 1536 Venus' flower basket, 1536 Verband Deutscher ZooDirektoren, 1719 Verhulst, Pierre-François, 1380 Vertebral foramen, 1643 Vertebrate zoology, 1711 Vertebrates, 38, 41, 205, 466, 804, 1241, 1642-1644, 1762; bones, 134;   brain, 143; circulatory systems, 211, 216, 219; endocrine systems, 461, 465; evolution, 27;   fish, 594; frogs and toads, 637; kidneys, 908; lampreys and hagfish, 925; locomotion, 964;   lungs, 974; mammals, 983; muscles, 1094, 1098; nervous systems, 1119, 1124; origins, 207;   reptiles, 1395; scales, 1453; skin, 1502; smell, 1515; tails, 1573; teeth, fangs, and   tusks, 1581; water balance, 1669, 1673 Vértesszöllös man, 791 Vervet monkeys, 255 Vesalius, Andreas, 1710 Vesicles; pigmented, 522 Vestibule, 1386 Vestigial, 1762 Vestimentiferan tubeworms, 997 Veterinary Medical Assistance Teams (VMAT), 1647 Veterinary medicine, 975, 1645-1649; zoos and, 1716 Vibrissae, 1762 Vicariance, 1762 Viceroy butterflies; Müllerian mimicry, 162 Vicuñas, 156, 383, 575 Villi, 352 Viperfish, 1583 Viperidae, 1523 Vipers, 1263; fangs, 1582; Gaboon, 1264; horned, 537; pit, 1137, 1523 Virchow, Rudolph, 1115 Vireos, 1125 Virgin birth, 1215 Virginia opossums, 1011, 1163 Viruses, 363-364, 846; death and, 305; diseases and, 360 Viscachas, 577 Viscera, 1762 Visceral afferents, 1120 Viscosity, 1762 Vision, 521, 1473, 1650-1653; communication and, 252; eagles, 394; estrus   and, 476; imprinting, 850; insects, 876; moles, 1045; nocturnal animals, 1136; owls, 1184;   primates, 1324; snakes, 1522; vultures, 1660 Visual cortex, 1762 Visual-motor coordination; sleep and, 1511 Visual predation, 1762 Visual signals, 895 Vitamins, 1149, 1762 Vitelline envelope, 586, 1762 Vitrodentine, 1453 Vivaria, 1762 Viviparous, 1762 Viviparous birth, 130, 1249, 1310; offspring care and, 1157 Vixens, 634 Vocal folds, 1762 Vocalizations, 1478, 1654-1659; birds, 253; cats, 170; cranes, 293;   elephant seals, 431; ethology and, 484; frogs, 640; gorillas, 682; howler monkeys, 551;   koalas, 913; language and, 931; Odontoceti, 377; pair-bonding and, 1193; swans, 1555;   whales, 1683; woodpeckers, 1703 Volatiles, 1762 Volcanic activity and extinctions, 513 Voles, red tree, 262 Volterra, V., 268 Volume regulation, 1171 Voluntary, 1762 Vomeronasal organs, 1397; pheromones and, 1234; snakes, 1523 Vomeronasal systems; lizards, 960 Vries, Hugo de, 494 Vulpes vulpes, 980 Vultures, 126, 329, 1451, 1660-1662; marabou and, 1458; nests, 773; scavengers, 1457 Vulturine fish eagles, 395 W Wading birds, 125; cranes, 292 Walking, 965 Walkingsticks, 538 Wallabies, 539, 905 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 1111 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 5, 115, 494 Wallace's Line, 538 Walruses, 533, 1466-1470; grooming, 694; tusks, 1583 Wapiti, 311, 437, 625; antlers, 813 War; animals and, 1648 Warblers, 1127; competition among, 268 Warbling vireo, 1277 Warington, Robert, 1718 Warm-blooded animals, 1663-1665, 1762 Warm-blooded animals, 5, 983, 1600, 1663, 1665; dinosaurs, 356; hibernation and, 761 Warning coloration, 1042, 1762 Washburn, Sherwood, 796 Washoe (chimpanzee), 887, 931, 933 Wasps, 865, 1127, 1666, 1668; nests, 772; yellow jackets, 1160 Water, 328, 1150, 1669-1673; gills and, 973; hydrostatic   skeletons, 832; osmoregulation, 1170; oxygen depletion in, 1402;   pollution, 1270; respiration and, 1415; thermoregulation and, 250 Water balance; camels, 156; desert animals, 329; endocrine systems, 462; vertebrates, 1669, 1673 Water boas, 579 Water buffalo, 175 Water bugs, 240; ingestion, 861 Water column, 996, 1714 Water contamination, 1270 Water fleas, 1550 Water mites, 279 Water vascular systems; echinoderms, 408 Water vascular system (WVS), 892 Waterboatman, 399 Waterfowl, 388; Arctic, 533 Watson, James, 667 Wattled jacanas, 857 Watve, Milind, 1583 Waves, 1605 Way, M. J., 268 Weak acid, 1762 Weasels, 1674-1678; carnivores, 168 Weaver-birds, 1525; nesting, 1125 Webs, 65, 1533, 1612 Weddell seals, 1467-1468 Weinberg, Wilhelm, 725 Welsh ponies, 816 West African manatees, 991 Western pocket gophers, 678 Wetlands, 994, 1272, 1552; Arctic, 532; habitat destruction, 713; Pacific Islands, 570 Whale sharks, 309, 1488, 1679-1681; ingestion, 860 Whales, 449; baleen, 309, 375, 860, 1682-1686; echolocation, 402;   evolution, 1575; flippers, 592; toothed, 375, 379 Whiptail lizards, 961 Whiptail lizards, 80 Whiskers; cats, 171; fur and hair and, 644 Whistles, 1655 Whistling ducks, 391 Whistling swans, 1554 White cells, 742 White-crowned sparrows, 800, 938 White matter, 144, 1762 White pelicans, 1219 White rhinoceroses, 1421 White sharks, 1488, 1687-1689 White storks, 1547 White-tailed deer, 311, 625 White-tailed sea eagles, 397, 735 White-throated sparrows; rhythms and, 1425 White vultures, 1660 White whales, 375-376, 378 Whitefish, 1443 Whitman, Charles, 881 Whittaker, Robert H., 1568 Whooping cranes, 292, 453 Whytt, Robert, 1360 Wichita Forest Reserve, Oklahoma, 1691 Wieschaus, Eric, 1103 Wigglesworth, Vincent, 459, 1031 Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act, 818 Wildcats, 170 Wildebeests, 44, 528, 979 Wildlife, 1762 Wildlife husbandry, 1720 Wildlife management, 150, 1008, 1296, 1690-1694; American pronghorns,   25; cloning and, 237; demography and, 324; grasslands, 688; population analysis   and, 1278; zoos and, 1718 Wildlife preserves, 1691 Wildness, 1762; breeding and, 149 Wilkins, Maurice, 667 Williams, Carroll, 1031 Willis, Thomas, 1360 Willow grouse, 534 Willughby, Francis, 1570 Wilmut, Ian, 668 Wilson, Edward O., 107, 115, 617, 865, 869, 883, 1380 Winds, 1606 Wing loading, 1762 Wings, 68, 152, 1319, 1695-1701; bats, 86; beetles, 104; eagles, 394;   flies, 606; flight and, 610; grasshoppers, 683; hawks, 732; hummingbirds, 829; ichthyosaurs, 842;   insects, 612; locomotion and, 967; muscles and, 1089; owls, 1183; pterosaurs, 1336;   storks, 1547; woodpeckers, 1703 Winter lethargy, 762 Wisent, 451 Wolff, Caspar, 440 Wolffian ducts, 1484, 1763 Wolfhounds, 370 Wolpoff, Milford, 1116 Wolverines, 1676; Europe, 555 Wolves, 168, 370-374, 382, 450, 534, 687; arctic, 1620; deciduous forests   and, 625; estrus, 477; Europe, 555; gray, 980; hierarchies, 766; homes, 773; Latvia, 553;   maned, 579; packs, 1188 Wombats, 541 Wood bison, 175 Wood cockroaches, 241 Wood ducks, 389, 391 Wood storks, 1547 Woodchucks, 1538; hibernation, 763 Woodcreepers, 1125 Woodland chimpanzees, 201-202 Woodpeckers, 1702-1705; acorn, 1156 Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory, Massachusetts, 1216 Wool, 642-643, 1493; goats, 673; shatoosh, 536 Woolly mammoths, 988 Worker ants, 866 Workers, 1763 World Health Organization, 1272 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 555 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 557, 645, 1210 Worldwatch Institute, 1270 Worldwatch Institute, 1273 Worms; acorn, 205; beaches, 1606; diseases and, 363; gills, 973;   nematodes, 1433; palolo, 585; segmented, 40, 75, 1081, 1316, 1456, 1706-1708; tentacles, 1586 Wright, Sewall, 1286 Wright, Sewell, 726 Wroc³aw Zoo, Poland, 1719 X X rays, 1101 Xanthophyll, 1332 Xantusia, 961 Xenopsylla cheopis, 876 Xenotransplantation, 1763 Xerophytes, 328 Y Yaks, 175, 235, 383, 535 Yeasts, 363 Yellow-eyed penguins, 1222 Yellow-headed turkey vultures, 1660 Yellow jackets, 1160, 1667 Yellowstone National Park, 451 Yellowstone National Park, 372, 712, 1691 Yersinia pestis, 363 Yolk, 132, 228, 441, 648 Yucca moths, 1254 Z Zaedyus pichi, 72 Zebra fish, 667 Zebra mussels, 1051 Zebrafish, 1264 Zebras, 748, 815-819, 1631; herds, 752 Zebroids, 818 Zebu cattle, 175 Zeitgeber, 1423, 1763 Zinjanthropus, 783 Ziphidae, 376 Zoea, 289 Zona pellucida, 587, 1763 Zone fossils, 1763 Zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), 1066, 1763 Zones, marine, 994 Zooflagellates, 1331 Zoogeography, 1763 Zoological Institute, Munich, 254 Zoological Society of London, 1718 Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 1718 Zoology, 495, 1709-1712; ethology, 480 Zoonoses, 1645, 1763 Zooplankton, 995, 1001, 1713-1715 Zoos, 111, 150, 380, 949, 1393, 1716-1721, 1763;   aging and, 13; endangered species and, 454; frozen, 239; marsupials, 1011; population genetics and, 1141; veterinary medicine and, 1645 Zooxanthellae, 281, 1355 Zuckerkandl, Emile, 1130 Zygodactyl, 1763 Zygote, 130, 227, 331, 441, 646, 704, 1016, 1763 Zygotic inviability, 895 Zymogens, 345

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