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Editor: Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ohio Northern University ISBN: 978-1-58765-019-2 List Price: $457 December 2001 · 4 volumes · 1,901 pages · 8"x10" Top Ten Science Reference Sources, Booklist Magill's Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life Index A A-keratin, 1454 Aardvarks, 1-2 Aardwolves, 836 Abalone, 1518 Abdim's storks, 1547 Abdomen, 1723 Abiotic, 1723 Abiotic factors and biomes, 711 Ablation, 1723 Abomasum, 351, 1436 Absorption, 1723 Absorption in digestion, 352 Abundance, 1723 Abundance, cyclical, 1280 Abyssalpelagic zone, 995 Acacia ants, 318 Acanthaster planci, 1542 Acanthostega, 1318 Acarina, 66 Acceleration, 1723 Acceleration in heterochrony, 757 Accipiter cooperi, 732 Accipiter supercilliosus, 731 Accipiters, 731 Accipitrinae, 394 Acclimatization, 1723 Acclimatization farms, 1718 Accommodation, 520, 1652, 1723 Acetylcholine, 718, 1723 Acheulian culture, 824 Acid, 909 Acid-base disturbance, 1228 Acid rain, 1270, 1723 Acidosis, 1723 Acorn woodpeckers, 1156, 1704 Acorn worms, 205 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 361, 848 Acrididae, 683 Acrosome, 441, 586, 647 Actin, 965, 1087, 1097, 1723 Actinopterygii, 594 Active or wide foraging, 1723 Aculeus, 1723 Adaptation, 1723 Adaptation, sensory, 1472 Adaptations, 338; evolution, 487; extinction and, 507, 515; hypoxia, 1401;   infanticide and, 856; mechanisms of, 3-7; natural selection and, 1106;   population genetics and, 1286 Adaptive radiation; beaks and bills, 90 Adaptive coloration, 6 Adaptive radiation, 8-12, 494, 1723; bills, 89; divergent evolution   and, 272; marsupials, 1011 Addax nasomaculatus, 45 Addaxes, 45 Adelie penguins, 1222 Adenine (A), 1099 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 1089, 1147, 1407, 1723 Adenoviruses, 364 Adrenal cortex, 806 Adrenal medulla, 807 Adrenaline, 462 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 462, 805 Advanced Cell Technology (ACT), 237 Aegyptopithecus, 58, 1326 Aepyseros melampus, 44 Aerobic, 1723 Aerobic metabolism, 1723 Afferent neurons, 1120 African buffalo, 175 African elephants, 434 African Eve, 825 African fauna. See Fauna: Africa African golden cats, 170 African gray parrots, 1213 African lungfish, 969 African pancake tortoises, 1622 African penguins, 1222 African python, 1575 African rhinoceroses, 1420 African termites, 873 African wild asses, 385 African wildcats, 238 Afterbirth, 1250 Agassiz, Louis, 506, 1565 Age structures, 322, 1275 Aggregation pheromones, 1233 Aggression, 22, 445, 1592, 1598, 1723; baboons, 83; courtship and, 283;   crocodiles, 297; elephants, 436; ethology and, 850; fetal hormones and, 799; gorillas, 679;   groups and, 698; hierarchies and, 765; hominids, 787; instincts and, 883. See also Territoriality and aggression Aggression-submission relationships, 765 Aggressive mimicry, 1043, 1305 Aging, 13-15, 183, 1723; diseases and, 365; growth and, 706; life spans   and, 950; molting and, 1054; sleep and, 1511; veterinary medicine and, 1649 Agnatha, 41, 925, 1317, 1723 Agoutis, 580 Agrichemicals, 1270 Agriculture; domestication and, 381; veterinary medicine and, 1646 Ailuropoda melanoleuca, 92 Ailurus fulgens, 92 Airfoil, 1723 Ais, 72 Aistopoda, 28 Aix galericulata, 391 Aix sponsa, 391 Akekamai (dolphin), 934 Alarm calls, 253 Alarm pheromones, 1233 Alarm response, 936 Alates, 1723 Alcids, 125 Aldosterone, 463, 806, 1172, 1227, 1670 Alerting system, 718 Alex (parrot), 933 Algae; coral and, 41 Alkalosis, 1723 Alkaptonuria, 1100 Allele frequency, 1724 Alleles, 234, 661, 665, 725, 1103, 1130, 1139, 1724 Allelochemic, 1724 Allen's rule, 233 Allergies, 361 Alligator snapping turtles, 1623 Alligator River Wildlife Refuge, 269 Alligators, 295, 453, 922, 1551; Chinese, 536; courtship, 285; ears, 402; vocalizations, 1655 Allochthonous deposition, 1195 Allogrooming, 695, 1724 Allomone, 1724 Allomones, 1232 Alloparenting, 1157, 1724 Allopatric, 1724 Allopatric speciation model, 1340 Allosaurus, 16-18 Allozyme, 1724 Alluropoda melanoleuca, 95 Alpacas, 156, 575; domestication, 383; wool, 643 Alpha individuals, 765 Alpine tundra, 1619 Altitude and respiration, 1414 Altricial, 1724 Altricial species, 1155 Altruism, 19-23, 1287, 1724; grooming and, 695; groups and, 699; instincts and, 882 Alula, 1697 Alvarez, Luis, 356, 508, 513 Alvarez, Walter, 356, 513 Alveoli, 915, 974, 1414, 1724 Alveolus, 1724 Alvin (submersible), 308 Amazonian manatees, 991 Amazonian river turtles, 1623 Amber, 630, 1196, 1199 Ambergris, 378 Amblypygi, 64 Amboseli Elephant Research Project, Kenya, 307 Ambulocetus natans, 1575 Ambush hunting, 166 Ambush predation, 1306 Ambystomatidae, 30, 758 Ameloblasts, 1453 American pronghorns; horns, 813 American Acclimitization Society, 1635 American alligators, 295 American Association of Zoo Keepers, 1720 American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 1720 American Bison Society, 451 American Bison Association, 177 American black bears, 95 American cockroaches, 241 American flamingos, 600 American goldfinches, 1528 American kestrels, 1636 American lions, 1073 American pronghorns, 24-26, 45, 47, 687, 1437 American sables, 1675 American short-tailed shrews, 1501 American Sign Language (ASL), 682, 931, 933, 1328, 1724 American Veterinary Medical Association, 1645 American Zoo and Aquarium Association, 1719 Amino acids, 1099, 1148, 1724 Ammocoetes, 926 Ammonia, 909 Ammonites, 1498 Amnion, 1312 Amniote, 1724 Amniotic sac, 131 Amoebas, 1332, 1496 Amoebocytes, 348 Amoeboid cells, 1082 Amoeboid motion, 964 Amoebozoa, 889 Amphibians, 27-33, 42, 469, 1241, 1318, 1642; brain, 143;   courtship, 284; endocrine systems, 462; estivation, 474; Europe, 556; frogs and toads, 637;   hearts, 743; metamorphosis, 1028; morphogenesis, 1066; newts, 1439; noses, 1144;   Pacific Islands, 571; pH maintenance, 1228; pollution and, 1272; regeneration, 1364;   salamanders, 1439;   scales, 1454; shedding, 1053; skin, 1503; tails, 1574; thermoregulation, 250; water balance and, 1672 Amphioxus, 206, 469, 590 Amphisbaenia, 1520 Amphistyly, 1724 Amphiumas, 1441 Amphiumidae, 30 Amplexus, 277, 585, 640, 1724 Ampullae of Lorenzini, 1488 Amur leopards, 947 Amygdala, 446, 1724 Anabolism, 1724 Anacondas, 579 Anadromy, 1443 Anaerobic metabolism, 1024, 1724 Analogue, 1724 Anaphylactic shock, 361, 1263 Anaplasma, 1330 Anapsida, 1395 Anas acuta, 388 Anas clypeata, 390 Anas formosa, 388 Anas laysanensis, 388 Anas platyrhynchos, 388 Anatidae, 388 Anatini, 389 Anatomy, 34-37, 495, 1711, 1724; comparative, 1238; hominid, 61; vocalizations and, 1657 Anaximander, 491 Andean condors, 1660 Andean flamingos, 600 Andrias, 30 Androgenesis, 1217 Androgens, 464-465, 801, 806, 1484, 1724 Andropodia, 278 Anemia, 362 Aneurysms; hydrostatic skeletons and, 834 Angiosperms, 245, 622 Angiotensin II, 463 Angle of attack, 1724 Anglerfish, 591, 998, 1001 Anglers, 309 Angora goats, 674 Anguilla anguilla, 428 Anguilla rostrata, 428, 598 Anguillidae, 428 Anguilliformes, 428 Anhimidae, 388 Animal husbandry, 148-149, 380, 1724; breeding and, 149; disease   and, 305; rhythms and, 1426; veterinary medicine and, 1645; zoos and, 1718 Animal kingdom, 38-43, 1568 Animal life and, 486-490 Animal life and evolution, 486, 490 Animal psychology, 1711 Animal rights, 306 Animalia, 1079 Anisogamy, 1478, 1724 Anisoptera, 328 Ankylosaurs, 355, 1544 Annelids, 40, 833, 1706, 1713; circulatory systems, 211; endocrine   systems, 456; exoskeletons, 499; muscles, 1091; nervous   systems, 142 Annual monogamy, 1019 Anoas, 538 Anoles, 188, 961 Anolis, 547 Anomalocaris, 1317 Anomura, 288, 302 Anopheles, 876 Anosmia, 1516, 1724 Anseranas semipalmata, 392 Anseranatini, 392 Anseriformes, 125, 388 Ant lions, 1613 Antagonism, 1724 Antarctic fauna. See Fauna: Antarctica Anteaters, 2, 71, 74, 551; giant anteaters, 71; lactation, 916; pygmy anteaters, 71 Antelope, 24, 44-47, 1450, 1629; Africa, 526; clones, 238;   four-horned, 44; klipspringer, 1232; pheromones, 1232; Tibetan, 536 Antennae, 48-51, 152, 1724; beetles, 103; ears, 400; flies, 606;   grasshoppers, 683; mosquitoes, 1071; pheromones and, 1234; snails, 1517 Antennapedia, 1104 Antennapedia complex, 777 Anterior pituitary gland, 1724 Anterior-posterior axis, 777 Anthozoa, 280, 832 Anthracosauria, 28 Anthrax, 363 Anthropogenic disturbance, 1725 Anthropoidea, 57, 1056 Anthropomorphism, 444, 886, 1725 Antibiotics, 361, 363 Antibodies, 361, 846, 1725; lactation and, 916; response, 846 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 462, 910, 1172, 1670, 1725 Antigen-MHC complex, 847 Antigens, 846, 1725; diseases and, 361 Antillean manatees, 991 Antilocapra americana, 47 Antilocapra americana, 45 Antilocapridae, 24 Antioxidants, 952 Antipredator benefits, 1725 Antlers, 311, 811-814, 1725; elk, 438; endoskeletons and, 467;   moose, 1062; reindeer, 1370; shedding, 1052; ungulates, 1629 Ants, 1, 51-53, 865; acacia, 318; antennae, 48; aphids and, 317;   colonies, 703; competition among, 268; parthenogenesis, 1215; Wilson, Edward O., 869 Anura, 30, 637 Anus, 343 Anvil (ears), 402 Aorta, 1725 Apatosaurus, 54-56, 1447 Apes, 57, 1725; orangutans, 1166; tool use, 1613; vocalizations, 1658 Apes to hominids, 57-62 Aphids, 80, 865; ants and, 317; parthenogenesis, 1215 Aphotic zone, 994, 1001 Apical ectoderm ridge (AER), 1066 Apical ectodermal ridge (AER), 1725 Apidium, 1326 Aplysia, 718, 883 Apocrine sweat glands, 1671 Apodiformes, 126, 829 Aposematic coloration, 162, 315 Aposomatic coloration, 1725 Appendicular skeleton, 467, 1725 Apposition compound eyes, 521 Approach and follow responses, 853 Apterous, 1725 Apterygiformes, 123 Aquaculture, 1725 Aquariums, 1718 Aquatic birds, 125 Aquila chrysaetos, 328, 396 Aquila pomarina, 732 Aquila rapax, 396 Aquilinae, 396 Arabian horses, 537, 816 Arabian oryx, 451 Arachnids, 40, 63-67, 75, 142, 284, 890, 1460, 1530, 1725 Aranae, 64 Arboreal, 1725 Arboreal stratification, 1057 Archaeogastropoda, 1518 Archaeopteryx, 68-70, 123, 358, 582, 1321, 1639 Archenteron, 228, 1725 Archeology, 382 Archeopteryx, 1395 Architeuthi, 1152 Architeuthis harveyi, 1587 Archontans, 985 Archosauria, 1396 Arctic fauna. See Fauna: Arctic Arctic foxes, 534, 1619 Arctic hares, 534 Arctic terns; migration, 1039 Arctic tundra, 1619 Arctic wolves, 1620 Arctodus, 93 Ardrey, Robert, 787 Arenivaga investigata, 241 Areola, 916 Aristotle, 229, 440, 491, 597, 628, 706, 1243, 1264, 1490, 1709 Armadillos, 2, 71, 74, 551, 1454 Arrector pili muscle, 1504 Arrestant pheromones, 1233 Artedi, Peter, 597 Arterial system, vertebrate, 216 Arteries, 218, 1725 Arterioles, 216, 1725 Arthropods, 40, 63, 75-78, 284, 288, 300, 890, 1053, 1081, 1240,   1317, 1460, 1713, 1725; brain, 142; centipedes, 185; endocrine systems,   456; exoskeletons, 499; hearts, 742; hydrostatic skeletons, 833; locomotion, 963;   metamorphosis, 1029; muscles, 1092;parthenogenesis, 1215; poisonous, 1262;   regeneration, 1364; shedding, 1503; shells, 1496 Artificial insemination, 150, 238, 1393 Artificial nests, 1127 Artificial selection, 664 Artiodactyls, 225, 311, 437, 527, 673, 745, 986, 1062, 1629, 1725 Ascideans, 205 Asexual, 79-81 Asexual reproduction, 79, 81, 892, 1288, 1373, 1477, 1725;   coral, 280; flatworms, 603; parthenogenesis, 1215; protozoa, 1331 Asian elephants, 434 Asian fauna. See Fauna: Asia Asian lions, 955 Asiatic black bears, 95 Asiatic black bears; poaching, 452 Asiatic cockroaches, 240 Asio flammeus, 1635 Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 1720 Associative learning, 937 Assortative mating, 1725 Asterias rubens, 1542 Asteroidea, 406, 1541 Asteroids and mass extinctions, 508, 1206 Asthenosphere, 1725 Astragalus, 45, 1725 Asynchronous muscle, 1089 Atlantic hagfish, 926 Atlantic salmon, 1443 Atlantic surf clams, 220 Atlas vertebrae, 1643 Atmosphere and respiration, 1414 Atokes, 1707 Atolls, 281, 892, 1355, 1725 Atomic Energy Commission, 425 ATP molecules, 180 Atria, 741, 1725 Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), 463 Atrioventricular valves, 743 Attractant pheromones, 1233 Auditory nerve, 1725 Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species (ACRES), 238 Audubon Society, 1692 Audubon, John James, 124, 449 Auerbach plexus, 351 Auks; extinction, 509; great, 108 Aurignacian culture, 824 Aurochs, 383, 554 Austin (chimpanzee), 887 Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), 543 Australian fauna. See Fauna: Australia Australian honey eaters, 1594 Australian lungfish, 969 Australopithecines, 59, 782, 790, 823, 1725; evolution, 489 Australopithecus anamensis, 1201 Australopithecus afarensis, 783 Australopithecus africanus, 783 Australopithecus boisei, 1200 Australopithecus robustus, 783 Autochthonous deposition, 1195 Autoimmune diseases, 846 Automaticity, 742, 1096 Autonomic nervous system, 1504 Autonomic nervous system, 1120, 1474 Autoradiography, 470 Autorhythmicity, 1096 Autotomy, 1725 Autotomy and defense mechanisms, 317 Autotrophic protozoa, 1331 Autotrophs, 244, 615, 618, 1725 Avery, Oswald, 666 Aves, 42, 123, 1241 Avian influenza, 305 Axel, Richard, 883 Axial skeleton, 467, 1725 Axis vertebrae, 1643 Axons, 1119, 1726 Aye-ayes, 943 Aysheaia, 1317 Aythya valisineria, 390 Aythyinae, 390 B B-keratin, 1454 B lymphocytes (B cells), 846 Babinski response, 1362 Babirusas, 538 Baboons, 82-84, 1189, 1326; competition among, 267; hamadryas, 979;   hierarchies, 766; homes, 774; olive, 978; troops, 1187 Bacillus anthracis, 363 Backcross progeny, 234 Background extinctions, 236, 507, 512 Backshore, 1605 Bacteria, 486, 846, 1239; digestion and, 344; diseases and, 360-362; life spans, 952 Bacterioplankton, 995 Bactrian camels, 156 Baculum, 1018, 1392 Badgers, 1676; defense mechanisms, 315 Badlands, South Dakota, 1627 Baer, Karl Ernst von, 337, 440, 758 Baer's law, 440 Bagworms, 873 Baikal teal ducks, 388 Balaena glacialis, 1685 Balaena mysticetus, 1685 Balaenoptera borealis, 1685 Balaenoptera musculis, 1685 Balaenoptera physalus, 1685 Bald eagles, 109, 394, 450 Baleen, 1726 Baleen plates, 1682 Baleen whales. See Whales, baleen Ball-and-socket joint, 467 Baltimore orioles, 128 Banded anteaters, 1578 Bandicoots, 538 Banding, 1726 Bandipur National Park, India, 537 Barbs in feathers, 582 Barn owls, 1182 Barnacles, 303, 1558; shells, 1497 Barnyard ducks, 390 Barometric pressure and respiration, 1414 Barrier islands, 1608 Barrier reef, 1726 Barrier reefs, 892, 1355 Basal ganglia, 1120 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 1025, 1148, 1726 Basal nuclei, 144 Basilar membrane, 738, 1726 Basking, 1600 Basking sharks, 309, 1488 Bass, 1551 Bassommatophora, 1518 Bat hawks, 732 Bateleurs, 395 Bates, Henry Walter, 1111 Batesian mimicry, 162 Batesian mimicry, 317, 1043, 1305, 1726 Bathypelagic zone, 995 Batoidea, 1487 Bats, 85-87, 1137; desert, 328; echolocation, 402, 1136, 1615;   flight and, 612; fruit, 571; hibernation, 763; seed dispersal, 615; wings, 1700 Bay ducks, 390 Bay owls, 1182 Bayliss, William, 461 Beaches, 567, 1605-1608 Beaded lizards, 960, 1262 Beadle, George W., 1101 Beaked whales, 375 Beaks and bills, 6, 88-91, 123, 342; Darwin's finches, 272;   eagles, 394; flamingos, 600; geese, 657; hadrosaurs, 722; hawks, 731;   hummingbirds, 829; ingestion, 861; parrots, 1213; platypuses, 1259; sparrows and   finches, 1525; swans, 1555; turtles, 1623; vultures, 1660; woodpeckers, 1702 Bearded vultures, 1660 Bears, 10, 92-95, 450, 538, 690, 1620; Asiatic black, 94; cannibalism   and, 163; carnivores, 165; Europe, 555; grizzly, 690-692; Kodiak, 93; pandas and, 1209;   poaching, 452; polar bears, 10, 533, 1266-1268; scavengers, 1456; spectacled, 94, 577; sun, 93 Beavers, 96-98, 1428, 1431; home building, 774; Latvia, 553 Bedbugs, 277 Beebe, William, 449 Beefalo, 235 Beer, Gavin de, 339 Bees, 99-102, 254, 865; Africanized, 269; Africanized bees, 662;   antennae, 49; circadian rhythms, 1422; copulation, 279;   domestication, 384; ethology and, 480;Hawaii, 570; instincts, 882;   parthenogenesis, 1215; stings, 1263 Beeswax, 101 Beetles, 103-106; antennae, 49; bombardier, 316; carrion, 1457;   dung, 1456; exoskeletons, 500; forest fire, 1475; infanticide, 856; scarabs, 1456 Behavior, 1471, 1726; aging and, 14; camouflage, 160; communication   and, 252; cooperative, 20, 246; copulatory, 278; courtship, 283; displays, 366;   elephant seals, 431; emotions and, 444; endocrine systems and, 457; environment and, 61;   estrus and, 476; ethology, 480; evolution and, 496; feeding, 342; fossils and, 631; grooming, 693;   hermaphrodites, 755; hormones and, 798, 803; imprinting and, 849; ingestion and, 859;   instincts, 880; language and, 932; learning and, 936; migration, 1036; molting and, 1054;   Neanderthals, 1115; parental, 1158; pecking orders, 766; primates, 1324; reflexes and, 1357;   reproduction and, 1374; reproductive strategies and, 1380; rhythms and, 1422, 1427, 1707;   territoriality and, 1127; testosterone and, 1391; thermoregulation and, 1600, 1664;   vision and, 1653; vocalizations and, 1657 Behavioral ecology, 1726; ethology, 482 Behavioral isolation, 895 Behavioral thermoregulation, 1726 Behaviorism, 445, 1726; reflexes and, 1362 Beling, Ingeborg, 1422 Bell, Charles, 1357 Beluga sturgeon, 595 Beluga whales, 376 Bengal tigers, 1610 Benthic animals, 1001 Benthic zone, 994, 1000 Benthos, 995, 1726 Bergmann's rule, 233 Bernoulli's principle, 609 Bet-hedging, 1726 Bewick's swans, 1554 Bicarbonate, 1497 Bicarbonate buffer system, 1227 Bicuspid valve, 218, 743 Bifurcation, 1726 Bifurcations, 1066 Big bang, 486 Big belly seahorses, 1464 Big game, 1726 Bighorn sheep, 328 Bilateral symmetry, 1083, 1365, 1726 Bile salts, 1726 Bills. See Beaks and bills Bindins, 586 Binocular vision, 1324, 1650, 1726 Binomial nomenclature, 1239, 1566-1567, 1710, 1726 Biochemistry, 11, 1238, 1711 Bioclimatic zone, 1726 Biodiversity, 107-113, 118, 488, 617, 1076, 1726; adaptations   and, 4; biogeography and, 114; cloning and, 238; extinction and, 515; habitats and, 714;   Madagascar, 561; mutations and, 1101; pollution and, 1269; reefs, 1354; urban and suburban wildlife, 1634 Bioelectrical fields; fish and, 1474 Bioethics, 118 Biogenetic law, 1726 Biogeography, 6, 11, 114-116, 495, 1039 Biological clocks, 49, 761, 799, 1424, 1726; migration and, 702 Biological magnification, 616, 1726 Biological rhythm, 1726 Biology, 117-118, 1569, 1726; zoo biology, 1720 Bioluminescence, 119-121, 308, 995, 1001, 1151, 1727 Biomass, 424-425, 618, 1714, 1727 Biomes, 115, 686, 709-715, 1727 Biosphere, 712, 1727 Biostratigraphy, 632, 1727 Biotechnology, 1727 Biotic, 1727 Biotic potential, 1293 Bipedal, 1727 Bipeds and locomotion, 966 Bird songs, 1656; imprinting and, 851; instincts and, 881; learning, 938;   owls, 1185; reproduction and, 253, 1376; sparrows, 1525; territoriality and, 1127, 1593 Bird watching, 128, 881 Birds, 42, 88, 122-129, 469, 566, 1241, 1552, 1642; Africa, 527;   Antarctica, 530; Arctic, 533; Asia, 534; Audubon, John James, 124; beaches, 1606; birth, 131;   blood, 1409; blood flow, 1409; brain, 143-144; Central America, 551; chickens, 198; claws, 224;   coniferous forests and, 623; courtship, 285; deciduous forests and, 624; dinosaurs and, 611;   dodos, 615; dreams, 1510; ears, 402; echolocation, 402; Europe, 556; eyes, 522;   false penis, 278; feathers, 582; Galápagos Islands, 560; gas exchange, 653, 1408; Guam, 571;   hearts, 741; imprinting, 849; ingestion, 861; lungs, 1408; Madagascar, 562; molting, 1054;   nesting, 1125; offspring care, 1155; omnivores, 1161; origins, 69; ostriches, 1176; ova, 441;   Pacific Islands, 570; pair-bonding and, 1191; pelicans, 1219; penguins, 1222; population   fluctuations, 1281; respiration in, 1407, 1412; scales, 1454; sleep movement, 1512;   songbirds, 1277; South America, 577; storks, 1547; swans, 1554; territoriality and, 1592;   tool use, 1613; tundra, 1620; urban and suburban wildlife, 1635; vocalizations, 1655;   vultures, 1660; waterfowl, 921; wing features, 1699; wings, 1697 Birth, 130-133, 320; grooming and, 695; growth and, 705; virgin, 1215 Birth rates, 1275, 1292 Biserial dermal armor, 1727 Bison, 47, 175-178, 383, 449, 687, 1691; American, 235, 451; zoos and, 1718 Bison bison, 383, 451 Bison bonasus, 451 Bithorax complex, 777 Bittern; endangered species, 556 Bivalves, 220, 1048, 1498, 1727 Black-and-white casqued hornbills, 857 Black bears, 95; scavengers, 1456 Black caimans, 299 Black-collared lizards, 328 Black eagles, 396 Black-footed ferrets, 453, 687; prairie dogs and, 262 Black-headed ducks, 389 Black kites, 732 Black mambas, 527, 1264 Black marten, 1507 Black necked cobras, 1582 Black panthers, 899, 946 Black rhinoceroses, 1420 Black rhinonoceroses; estrus, 476 Black-tailed prairie dogs; social organizations, 979; vocalizations, 1657 Black vultures, 1660 Black wallaroos, 905 Black widow spiders, 284, 328, 1263, 1533; cannibalism and, 163 Black, Davison, 784 Blackbirds; competition among, 268 Bladder, 909, 1392 Bladderworms, 1561 Blastema, 1365, 1727 Blastocoel, 227, 705 Blastocyst, 228, 441, 1250, 1312 Blastodisc, 441 Blastomere, 227, 331 Blastopore, 228, 442 Blastula, 227, 441, 808, 1240, 1727 Blatella germanica, 240 Blatta orientalis, 240 Bleckmann, H., 1475 Blesboks, 44 Blister beetles, 106 Blood, 210, 216, 742, 1727; birds, 1409; gas exchange and, 652;   minute-volume, 218; mosquitoes and, 1071; oxygen and, 1402; whales, 376 Blood cells, 1226 Blood flow, 651; birds, 1409; hypoxia and, 1402; noses and, 1144 Blood flukes, 1560 Blood groups, 11 Blood pressure, 212 Blood vessels, 211, 1727 Blood volume, 1226 Bloom, Robert, 783 Blowflies, 608, 877 Blubber, 1727; seals, 1467; thermoregulation and, 1602, 1664; whales, 375, 1682 Blue crabs, 288, 303; adaptations to low oxygen, 1403 Blue tits, 939 Blue whales, 1682, 1685 Boa constrictors, 579 Boars, 1246; tusks, 1583 Boas, 1523 Bobcats, 170, 328 Body forms and ingestion, 859 Body mass, 1727 Body parts and fossilization, 630 Body shape, 776; fish, 595; flight and, 611; manatees, 991; Neanderthals, 1114; snakes, 1397, 1520 Body size; climate and, 566; clines and, 232; life spans and, 952;   metabolism and, 1025; molting and, 1053; nutrient requirements and, 1147; reproduction   and, 1379; sex determination and, 1483; sleep and, 1510 Body-spine theory, 590 Body symmetry, 1365 Body temperature. See Thermoregulation Bohr, Christian, 1416 Boidae, 1523 Boll weevils, 105 Boltrun, 1727 Bolus, 350 Bombardier beetles, 316 Bombyx mori, 1030 Bond, 1727 Bonding behaviors, 1727 Bone, 134-137, 1317, 1453, 1727; beaks and bills, 88; birds, 122;   cancellous, 135; compact, 135; endoskeletons, 466; fossilization and, 630; growth of, 705;   horns, 811; horns and antlers and, 812; skin and, 1503; teeth and, 1581; vertebrates, 1642 Bone marrow, 846 Bonetoks, 46 Bongo antelope, 44 Bonnet, Charles, 1217 Bonobos, 201, 478; estrus, 476; language and, 931 Bonpland, Aimé, 580 Bony fishes, 594 Boocercus eurycerus, 44 Book lungs, 1727; spiders, 1532 Booted eagles, 396, 731 Poephagus; grunniens, 383 Bos indicus, 383 Bos primigenius, 383 Bos taurus, 383 Bottle-nosed dolphins, 376, 934 Bottleneck effects, 1140 Bottlenose dolphins, 378 Boucher de Perthes, J., 782 Boule, Marcellin, 1115 Boundary conditions, 1066 Bovidae, 175, 673 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, 818 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 305, 363, 1646 Bovines; antelope, 44; herbivores, 747 Bowerbirds, 369, 543, 1478; courtship, 285 Bowhead whales, 949, 1685 Box jellyfish, 1586 Box turtles, 1622 Boyce, Mark, 1382 Boyer, Herbert, 668 Brachiation, 1727 Brachiopods, 514 Brachiopterygii, 594 Brachiosaurus, 138-140, 355, 1447 Brachiostoma, 590 Brachycephalidae, 31 Brachycera, 606; antennae, 48 Brachyura, 288, 302 Bradley, Guy, 584 Bradypus grisues, 72 Brahminy kites, 732 Brain, 35, 39, 141-146, 1119, 1241, 1642; cephalopods, 1151; decoding   sound, 403; dreams and, 1510; emotions and, 446; endoskeletons and, 467; gorillas, 679;   hermaphrodites, 755; hominid, 784; language and, 930; mind versus, 1123; neurulation   and, 229; Odontoceti, 377; perception and, 737; primates, 1324; sense organs and, 1471;   sleep and, 1510; sleep movement and, 1512; smell and, 1515; spiders, 1533; vision   and, 1650; vocalizations and, 1657; whales, 1683 Brain stem, 143 Brain, C. K., 783 Bramblings, 1525 Branchial systems, 1243 Branchiostoma, 1320 Breathing, 1415 Breeding; diseases and, 364; domestication, 380; genetics and, 664; groups   and, 702; herds, 753 Breeding programs; wisent, 451 Breeding cycles, 1280 Breeding programs, 147-151, 1236, 1393; eagles, 395; pandas, 1210; tigers, 1611 Breeding seasons, 1017 Bridge, 1727 Bristles, 642, 1727; exoskeletons and, 501 British Museum, 442 Brittle stars, 407 Bronchi, 974, 1408, 1727 Bronchioles, 1414 Brontosaurus, 54, 355. See Apatosaurus Bronx Zoo, 177, 1718 Brood, 1727 Brood-parasites, 1156 Brood patch, 1504 Brood pouch, 1727 Brook trout, 1444 Brooksella, 1081 Brown bears; Europe, 555 Brown bears, 95 Brown-hooded wood cockroaches, 241 Brown hyenas, 837 Brown pelicans, 453, 1219 Brown recluse spiders, 65 Brown tree snakes, 571 Brown, Frank A, 1424 Brown, W. L., 869 Browser, 1727 Brucellosis, 1646, 1727 Bryant, Peter J., 1366 Bryant, Susan V., 1367 Bubalus bubalis, 383 Bubble feeding, 701 Bubo bubo, 1182 Bubo virginianus lagophonus, 1182 Bubo virginianus virginianus, 1182 Bucardos; cloning, 238 Budding, 1331, 1727 Budgerigars, 543 Buffalo, 47, 175-178, 449; Africa, 526; domestication, 383 Buffeo dolphins, 376 Buffering and pH maintenance, 1227 Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc de, 493 Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc de, 1710 Bufonidae, 30, 637 Bulbourethral glands, 1392 Bulbus arteriosus, 742 Bull sharks, 1488 Bulla, 1727 Bullfrogs, 328; mate competition, 1374 Bundle of His, 217 Bünning hypothesis, 1423 Buntings, 534, 1525 Bureau of Land Management, 1692 Bureau of Land Management, U.S., 818 Burgess Shale, 208, 515, 631 Buri, Peter, 1141 Burros, 386 Burrowing and claws, 223 Burrowing insectivore, 1727 Burrowing owls, 1183 Burrows, 772 Bursa of Fabricius, 846 Bush babies, 527 Bush dogs, 579 Bush hyraxes, 839 Bushbacks, 44 Bushbucks, 526 Bushmasters, 580 Bustards, kori, 125 Buteo buteo, 732 Buteo hawks, 395, 731 Buteo jamaicensis, 732, 1636 Buteo swainsoni, 732 Buteogallus aequinoctialis, 733 Buteoninae, 395 Butterflies, 152-155; blue morpho, 153; monarch, 154, 315; Palos   Verdes, 453; viceroy, 153; western pygmy blue, 152 Buzzards, 534, 731-732 Bwindi Impenetrable Forest National Park, Uganda, 527 Bycanistes subcylindricus, 857 C Cabybaras, 1431 Cacatua moluccensis, 1214 Caecilia thompsoni, 1318 Caecilians, 1318 Caenolestidae, 1011 Caenorhabidits elegans, 667-668, 890, 1434 Caimans, 295, 299, 579, 922, 1551 Cairina moschata, 391 Cairini, 391 Calabaria, 1575 Calamus, 582 Calcarea, 1535 Calcareous, 1727 Calcarine fissure, 1324 Calcichordata, 205 Calcification, 501, 1727; antlers, 812 Calcitonin, 464, 806 Calcium, 812, 1496; endoskeletons and, 468 Calcium carbonate, 41 Calcium ions, 1087 Calcium phosphate, 1149 Caldwell, W. H., 1059 Calico salmon, 1443 California condors, 453, 1660 Calimari, 309 Callinectes sapidus, 288 Calliphora, 877 Callithricidae, 1325 Calorie, 1727 Calories, 1026, 1148 Camas rats, 676 Cambrian explosion, 514 Camelids; South America, 575 Camels, 147, 156-158, 1437; Australia, 540, 544; Bactrian, 535;   domestication, 383; thermoregulation, 1665 Camelus bactrianus, 383 Camelus dromedarius, 383 Camouflage, 4, 122, 159-162, 366, 1255, 1728; cats, 171;   chameleons, 188; mimicry and, 1042; octopuses, 1151; penguins, 1222; seahorses, 1463;   shedding and, 1055; sleep and, 1509; snakes, 1524 Canada geese, 658; hierarchies, 767 Canadian Veterinary Medical Association, 1645 Canaliculi, 468 Canals, ear, 737 Cancellous bone, 468, 1728 Cancer; cells, 183; immune system and, 846 Canidae, 370, 1635 Canids; copulation, 278; foxes, 634 Caniforms, 985 Canine teeth, 1582 Canines, 1728 Canis familiaris, 382 Canis latrans, 328, 372, 980, 1637 Canis lupus, 382, 980 Cannibalism, 163-164; hominids, 787; praying mantis, 1302 Canvasback ducks, 390 Capacity, 233 Capillaries, 216, 742, 1728; closed circulatory systems, 211;   endoskeletons and, 468 Capra, 673 Capra aegarus, 382 Capra hircus, 382 Caprimulgiformes, 126 Capripox, 305 Captivity; life spans and, 950 Capybaras, 578, 1428 Carangiform swimming, 1728 Carapace, 300, 302, 1396, 1497, 1622, 1728 Carbohydrates, 1147, 1728 Carbon dioxide, 651, 972, 1171, 1227, 1414 Carbon-14 dating, 11, 825, 1206 Carbonate, 1496 Carbonic anhydrase, 1496-1497, 1728 Carbonization, 630 Carcharhinidae, 1488 Carcharhinus leucas, 1488 Carcharodon carcharias, 1488, 1687 Cardiac muscle, 1095 Cardiac muscle cells, 182 Cardiac output, 1728 Cardinalinae, 1525 Cardinalis cardinalis, 1527 Cardinals, 1525 Cardiovascular systems, 1243 Carduelinae, 1525 Carduelis tristis, 1528 Caretaking; parental roles, 1157 Carew, Thomas J., 718 Caribbean fauna. See Fauna: Caribbean Caribbean flamingos, 600 Caribou, 311, 532, 1370, 1620; antlers, 813 Carnassial teeth, 1728 Carnassials, 861 Carnivores, 92, 165-169, 342, 409, 615, 985, 1148, 1160,   1241, 1728; eagles, 396; Europe, 555; foxes, 634; hawks, 732; herbivores   and, 745; hyenas, 836; ingestion, 861; jellyfish, 902; marine, 998; mollusks, 1050;   offspring care, 1157; penguins, 1223; plants, 1254; polar bears, 10; snakes, 1520;   social organizations, 980; storks, 1547; Tyrannosaurus, 1626; velociraptors, 1639; zooplankton, 1713 Carnosaurs, 16 Carolina mantid, 1301 Carotene, 1505 Carotenoids, 582 Carp, 536 Carpet beetles, 106 Carr, Archie, 1037 Carrion, 1459, 1728 Carrion beetles, 1457 Carrying capacity, 425, 688, 1293, 1380, 1693, 1728; migration and, 1038 Carson, Rachel, 450 Cartilage, 134-137, 1487, 1643, 1687, 1728; endoskeletons, 466;   endoskeletons and, 468; fins, 591 Cartilage bone, 136 Cassowaries, 123, 543, 571, 1177 Caste, 1728 Castes and social insects, 867 Castoreum, 97, 1728 Castration and behavior, 801 Casuariiformes, 123 Cat Loc Nature Reserve, Vietnam, 537 Catabolic pathways, 1100 Catabolism, 1728 Catamounts, 1073 Catarrhini, 57, 1056, 1325, 1728 Catastrophes and communities, 261 Catastrophism, 492, 516, 1194, 1728 Caterpillars, 878 Catfish, 1551; clariid, 524 Cats, 147, 170-174, 1136-1137, 1451; African wildcats, 238;   carnivores, 165; cheetahs, 194; domestication, 173, 383; dreams, 1510; foxes and, 634;   hierarchies, 766; jaguars, 899; leopards, 946; lions, 955; tigers, 1609; urban and suburban wildlife, 1635 Cattle, 47, 147, 175-178, 1631; birth, 131; domestication, 383;   E. coli and, 362; foot and mouth disease, 306; lactation, 917; sleeping sickness and, 528; uterus, 1312 Caudal fin, 1728 Caudata, 29 Cavia porcellus, 383 Cebidae, 551, 1326 Cecum, 1728 Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), 1065 Cell division, 180 Cell functions; hormones and, 804; oxygen and, 1401 Cell-mediated immunity, 1728 Cell membrane, 179, 1472 Cell proteins, 180 Cell structure, 179 Cell types, 38, 179-184; bone, 812; bone cells, 136; epithelial   cells, 1502; growth and, 704; mitotic cells, 1502; regeneration and, 1365; sense organs, 1472 Cells, 1066, 1079, 1216, 1710; aging, 13; blood, 1226; specialization, 331 Cellular biology, 117 Cellular immune response, 846 Cellular rearrangement; gastrulation and, 228 Cellular respiration, 1253, 1411, 1728 Cellulose, 1728 Celsius, 1728 Censuses, 323, 1006 Centipedes, 75, 185-187 Central American fauna. See Fauna: Central America Central nervous system, 143, 1119, 1472 Central Park, New York City, 1636, 1718 Centrolenidae, 31 Centrum, 1643, 1728 Cephalization, 142 Cephalochordata, 205 Cephalophus, 979 Cephalopods, 891, 1048, 1151; circulatory systems, 211; endocrine systems, 458; tentacles, 1586 Cephalothorax, 820, 1728 Ceratius, 998 Ceratopsians, 356 Ceratosaurs, 355 Ceratosaurus, 355 Cercal organs, 400, 1728 Cercariae, 604 Cercopithecinae, 1056 Cercopithecoidea, 57, 1056 Cerebellar penduncles, 1121 Cerebellum, 143, 1120 Cerebral cortex, 1120 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 144 Cerebrum, 143 Cervidae, 311, 1062 Cervinae, 311 Cervix, 1386 Cervus dama, 382 Cervus elaphus, 382 Cesarean section, 1313 Cestoda, 603 Cetaceans, 375, 1682, 1729; ears, 403; flippers, 592 Cetorhinus maximus, 1488 Chaetognatha, 1713 Chaffinches, 1525 Chain of being, 491 Chalones, 706 Chamaeleo chameleon chameleon, 189 Chamaeleo dilepts dilepts, 190 Chamaeleo pardalis, 190 Chambered nautiluses, 1153 Chambers, Robert, 492 Chameleons, 188-190, 961; coloration, 160; Madagascar, 562 Chamois goat antelope, 674 Chaparral, 191-193 Character displacement, 411, 869 Characters, 271 Charadriiformes, 125 Chargaff, Erwin, 667 Chars, 1443 Chase, Martha, 666 Chauliodus, 1583 Cheetahs, 170, 194-196; clones, 238; estrus, 477; locomotion, 966 Cheirogaleidae, 944 Chelate, 1729 Chelicera, 288 Chelicerae, 820, 1729 Chelicerates, 890 Cheliceriformes, 63, 1460 Chelidae, 1623 Chelonia, 1396 Chelonia mydas, 1004 Cheloniidae, 1623 Chelus fimbriatus, 1623 Chemical defenses, 315 Chemical pollutants, 1729 Chemical signals and communication, 252 Chemoreceptors, 737, 1461, 1473, 1729 Chemotaxis, 1514, 1729 Chen hyperborea, 1139 Chickadees, 1127 Chickens, 126, 197, 200; domestication, 383; pecking orders, 766;   pecking orders, 766; Salmonella and, 362; vocalizations, 1656 Chihuahuas, 370 Chilean flamingos, 600 Chilopoda, 185 Chimaeridae, 1490 Chimpanzees, 201-204, 526-527, 782, 1326; cannibalism and, 163;   communication and, 931; emotions, 445; estrus, 476; habituation studies, 720; intelligence, 885;   learning, 938; mirror test, 445; tool use, 1613 Chinchillas, 577, 1431 Chinese alligators, 295 Chinese mantid, 1301 Chinook salmon, 1443 Chinstrap penguins, 1222 Chipmunks, 1431, 1538; dormancy, 761 Chironex fleckeri, 1586 Chirus, 536 Chitin, 501, 820, 874, 973, 1081, 1729; invertebrate claws, 225 Chitons, 1048 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 1729 Chlorophyll, 1729 Choanocytes, 348, 860, 890 Choeropsis liberiensis, 769 Cholecalciferol, 807 Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin (CCKPZ), 464 Cholera, 1729 Choloepus hoffmanni, 72 Chomsky, Noam, 930 Chondrichthyes, 42, 469, 1241, 1487 Chondrification, 1729 Chondrin, 468 Chondroblasts, 468 Chondrocytes, 134 Chondrostei, 595 Chordae tendinae, 218, 743 Chordates, 38, 466, 1240, 1729; brain, 143; lower, 205-209, 1744; prehistoric, 1320 Chorion, 1250, 1729 Chorionic gonadotropin, 463 Chorionic gonadotropin, 1251 Choughs, 1156 Chromatin, 180 Chromatophores, 1504, 1729 Chromophore, 522 Chromosome diminution, 333 Chromosomes, 181, 441, 666, 754, 805, 1216, 1239, 1391, 1484, 1729; mutations and, 1103 Chronobiology, 1424 Chuckwallas, 474, 961 Chyme, 345, 351 Cicadas; ears, 399 Ciconiiformes, 125 Cilia, 737, 963, 1145, 1331 Ciliated, 1729 Ciliates, 1332 Ciliophora, 889, 1332 Cinereous vultures, 1660 Circadian rhythms, 1038, 1422, 1509, 1729 Circaetinae, 395 Circaetus gallicus, 395 Circalunar rhythms, 1423 Circannual rhythms, 1423 Circateus, 733 Circatidal rhythms, 1423 Circular muscle, 1729 Circulatory, 210-219 Circulatory systems, 1416 Circulatory systems, 35; aging and, 14; digestive systems   and, 343; echinoderms, 406; insects, 873; invertebrates, 76, 210, 215; life spans and, 951;   spiders, 1533; thermoregulation and, 1664; vertebrates, 216, 219; white sharks, 1688 Circus, 732 Circuses, 380 Cistrons, 1102 Citellu tridecemlineatus, 676 Citellus tereticaudus, 474 Civets, 166, 527, 562 Clade, 1729 Cladistics, 208, 928, 1729 Clams, 220-222, 1048, 1551; beaches, 1606; hypoxia and, 1404; nervous systems, 142 Clangula hyemalis, 391 Clariid catfish, 524 Clasper, 1729 Claspers, 591, 1018, 1488, 1679, 1688 Class, 1729 Classification, 1238, 1325, 1564, 1709, 1729; Agassiz, Louis, 1565;   Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc de, 493; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 496;   Linnaean system, 1567; Ray, John, 1570 Clavicle, 1729 Claws, 223-226, 314; Allosaurus, 17; anteaters, 71; cats, 171;   flies, 606; hawks, 731; lobsters, 301; sloths, 72; velociraptors, 1640; woodpeckers, 1702 Claws, nails, and hooves; endoskeletons and, 467 Cleaning symbiosis, 1559 Cleavage, 227, 231, 331, 441, 705, 1729 Cleidoic egg, 1729 Cleidoic eggs, 1395 Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry, Utah, 16 Clever Hans (horse), 886 Click beetles, 106 Climate and paleoecology, 1195 Clines, 232-235, 1729 Clitoris, 1386, 1484 Cloaca, 1729 Cloacal kiss, 277, 1018 Clock sense, 1729 Clone, 1729 Cloning, 334, 668; extinct, 236-239; extinct or endangered   species, 111, 236, 239; hormones and, 808; parthenogenesis as, 1215 Closed circulation, 1729 Closed circulatory systems, 211 Clotting agents, 1262 Clouded leopards, 170, 946 Clown fish, 1559 Clutch, 1730 Cnemidophorus, 961 Cnidaria, 892 Cnidarians, 39, 79, 832, 890, 1081, 1615, 1713 Cnidoblasts, 902 Cnidocyte, 1730 Cnidospora, 1332 Coalitions, 1730 Coatimundis, 550, 578, 1347, 1349 Cobras, 537, 1264, 1582; king, 1523 Coccine cells, 1082 Cochlea, 401, 403, 738, 1730 Cockatoos, 1212 Cockroaches, 240-242; antennae, 48; ears, 400; hormones, 801; regeneration, 1365 Coelacanths, 506, 595 Coelenterates, 280, 1081, 1586 Coelenteron, 832, 1730 Coelom, 349, 833, 1706, 1730 Coelomic fluid, 833 Coelophysis, 355 Coelurosauravus, 1698 Coenzymes, 1149 Coevolution, 5, 243-248, 1254, 1730; bees and flowers, 254; defense   mechanisms, 317; ecology and, 417; senseory systems, 1476; symbiosis and, 1559 Cognition, 885, 1730; language and, 930 Cognitive ethology, 885, 1730 Cohen, Stanley, 668 Coho salmon, 1443 Cohort, 1730 Cohorts, 321 Cold-blooded animals, 249-251, 1730 Cold-blooded animals, 5, 27, 249, 251, 1228, 1600, 1663 Coleoptera, 876 Coliiformes, 126 Collagen, 136, 467, 812, 834, 1453, 1503, 1730 Collar cells, 860 Collembola, 530, 1730 Collier, G., 268 Colligative properties, 1170 Colobinae, 1056 Colonial theory, 1082 Colonies, 1730; ants, 865; coral, 892; hornets, 1666; meerkats, 1021; termites, 1591 Color vision, 523, 1651 Coloration, 159; agouti, 159; aposematic, 162, 315, 317, 366, 1305;   camouflage and, 160; cats, 173; cryptic, 159; cuttlefish, 1152; desert animals, 566;   exoskeletons, 501; feathers, 582; flamingos, 600; giraffes, 670; grizzly bears, 690;   hair, 642; horses, 817; hummingbirds, 830; insects, 877; leopards, 946; lizards, 960;   marine animals, 998; molting and, 1054; octopuses, 1151; owls, 1183; parrots, 1213;   penguins, 1222; peppered moths and natural selection, 1106; seahorses, 1463; skin and, 1504;   squid, 1151; thermoregulation and, 1025, 1601; tigers, 1610; zebras, 817 Colostrum, 916, 1730 Colubrids, 1263 Columbia livia, 1634 Columbiformes, 126 Columella, 739 Combs, chicken, 198 Commensalism, 245, 1558, 1730 Commissures, 1121 Commitment, 332, 1730 Communal nesting; dinosaurs, 752 Communal nesting, 699, 1127, 1177 Communication, 48, 252-258, 881; animals, 932; ants, 51; bees, 254; bioluminescnce, 120;   courtship, 283; crabs, 302; cuttlefish, 1152; displays, 366; dogs, 371; elephant   seals, 431; elephants, 435, 1658; emotions and, 445; giraffes, 671; grasshoppers, 684;   grooming and, 693; groups and, 700; hearing and, 737; insect societies, 865; insects, 399;   koalas, 913; language and, 930; monkeys, 1056; octopuses, 160; parrots, 1213; pheromones and, 1235;   seals, 1467; sharks, 1488; smell and, 1515; termites, 1589; vision   and, 1650; vocalizations and, 1654; whales, 1683 Communities, 114, 244, 259-264, 1730; biodiversity and, 617; ecological   niches and, 412; ecosystems and, 422; fission-fusion, 201; food chains and, 614;   habitats and, 710; hydrothermal vents and, 1002; lentic and lotic, 711; pheromones and, 1232 Compact bone, 468, 1730 Comparative anatomy, 11, 1730 Comparative psychology, 1730 Compartmentalization; communities and, 260 Competition, 259, 265-270, 314, 477, 487, 1557, 1730; cannibalism   and, 163; communities and, 260; digestion and, 346; ecological niches and, 410;   ecology and, 417; environment and, 233; hierarchies and, 765; hyraxes, 840; infanticide   and, 856; lactation and, 915; marsupials and, 1014; migration and, 1037; monkeys, 1056;   multicellularity, 1080; nocturnal animals and, 1135; predation and, 1306; reproduction and,   1374, 1478; speciation and, 1341; territoriality and, 1127, 1593 Competition exclusion law of ecology, 410 Complete tetanus, 1095 Compound eyes, 520, 1652, 1730 Concentration, 909 Concentration deposits; fossils, 631 Concentricycloidea, 408 Conches, 1518 Conditioning, 937, 1730; imprinting and, 853; stimulus and response, 937 Condors, 453, 1660 Conduction fibers, 742 Condylocardia, 220 Cone mosaic, 1653 Cones, 522, 1651; oil droplets in, 522 Confusion effect, 699 Congenital diseases, 364 Coniferous forests. See Forests, coniferous Conjugation, 1016, 1331, 1477 Connective cells, 182 Connective tissue, 467, 1502, 1730 Connochaetes, 44, 979 Conservation biology; population analysis and, 1277 Conservation deposits; fossils, 631 Conservation and wildlife management, 1691 Conservation biology, 107, 110, 236, 1110 Consilience, 869 Consort pair, 1730 Consortships, 1192 Conspecific, 1730 Constriction, 1730 Consumer food chain, 1730 Consumers, 259, 409, 418, 424, 615, 618, 1079, 1253, 1333, 1471, 1730 Contact zones, 661 Continental drift, 1730 Continental drift and extinction, 506 Contingidae, 1125 Continuous evolution, 1339, 1343 Continuous feeders, 343 Continuous growth, 1730 Continuous populations, 1275 Contractile molecules, 1087 Contractile vacuoles, 909, 1331, 1731 Contraction, heart, 741 Controlling site, 1731 Controlling sites; genes, 1102 Conus arteriosus, 742 Convection, 1731 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 536 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 453, 900, 947 Convergent, 271-276 Convergent evolution, 271, 276, 1731; eels, 428; finches, 1525;   fins and flippers, 589; lungfishes, 595; marsupials and, 1011; owls and hawks, 1182 Cook, James, 539 Cooper's hawks, 732 Cooperation and hierarchies, 767 Cooperative breeding; nesting and, 1127; offspring care and, 1157 Cooperative hunting, 1189 Copal, 1199 Copepods, 995, 1001, 1713 Copper; respiration and, 1414 Copperhead snakes, 1263 Copulation, 277-279, 586, 1018, 1380, 1731; courtship and, 283;   echidnas, 279; grooming and, 696; mating and, 1017; reproduction and, 1374 Coraciiformes, 126 Coracoid bar, 592 Coral, 79, 280-282, 892, 1560; extinction, 514; groups and, 702; mutualism   and, 1254; reefs, 1354 Coral reef fish; hermaphrodites, 755; territoriality and gender, 1594 Coral snakes, 1263 Corbett, Laurie, 543 Core temperature, 1731 Cornea, 521, 1652 Corona radiata, 1731 Corpora allata, 458, 1031, 1731 Corpora cardiaca, 458 Corpus luteum, 649, 916, 1311, 1386, 1731 Corpus striatum, 144 Correlational analysis, 1382 Cortex, 1731 Corticosterone, 462, 800, 1425 Corticotropin-releasing hormone, 462 Cortisol, 462-463, 806, 916 Corvus corax, 328 Cosmine, 1454 Costa's hummingbirds, 329 Costal grooves, 1731 Coteries, 979 Cottonmouth snakes, 1263 Cougars, 170, 450, 1073 Countercurrent exchanger, 1731 Countercurrent flow in respiration, 653 Countercurrent mechanism, 1731 Countershading, 159, 1731 Countersinging, 255 Courtenay-Latimer, Marjorie, 506 Courtship, 5, 283-287, 1479; amphibian, 27; behavior, 798;   birds, 123; competition and, 266; displays, 89, 367; ducks, 389; groups and, 698;   isolating mechanisms and, 896; mating and, 1016; nesting and, 1126; owls, 1185;   robins, 1191; tails and, 1575 Coverts, 1731 Cowper's glands, 1392 Cows. See Cattle Coydogs, 373 Coyotes, 328, 370-374, 450, 687, 980, 1637 Coypus, 580 Crab-eating raccoon, 1348 Crabs, 288-291, 302; adaptations to low oxygen, 1403; blue, 303;   brain, 142; circulatory systems, 214; claws, 225; exoskeletons, 500; fiddler, 303;   gills, 973; hermit, 302; sand, 303; tails, 1575 Crabs, horseshoe. See Horseshoe crabs Craighead, Frank, 1282 Craighead, John, 1282 Cranes, 125, 292-294, 453 Cranial nerves, 1119 Craniates, 467 Crassostrea virginica, 220 Crawling, 965 Crayfish, 48, 301-302 Crepuscular, 1731 Crepuscular animals, 1422 Crest, 1731 Crested basilisk lizards, 552 Crested eagles, 395 Crested iguanas, 570 Cretaceous mass extinction, 508 Creutzfeld-Jacob disease, 363 Crick, Francis, 667 Crickets; communication, 255; ears, 399 Crinoidea, 406 Critical period, 1731 Critical periods, 851, 938 Crocodiles, 295-299, 453, 922, 1396, 1551; Africa, 527; Asia, 537;   Australia, 542; Caribbean, 547; courtship, 285; ears, 402; thermoregulation, 251; vocalizations, 1655 Crocodilia, 295 Crocodilus, 295 Crocodylia, 1396 Crocodylidae, 295 Crocodylinae, 295 Crocodylus niloticus, 298 Crocodylus porosus, 297 Crocuta crocuta, 856 Cro-Magnon man, 824 Cro-Magnon man, 792 Crop, 343, 351, 1731 Cross-pollination, 1731 Crossbills, 1525; beaks and bills, 91; competition among, 268 Crossbridge, 1731 Crosscurrent flow in respiration, 653 Crossed extensor reflex, 1358 Crossopterygii, 594 Crotalus, 328 Crotaphytus, 328 Crown, 1581, 1731 Crown-of-thorns starfish, 1542 Crows, tool use, 1613 Crustaceans, 40, 75, 288, 300-303, 890, 995, 1497, 1731; beaches, 1606;   brain, 142; claws, 225; locomotion, 963; molting hormones, 458; regeneration, 1364 Crypsis, 159 Cryptic coloration, 1731 Cryptobranchidae, 30 Cryptocercus punctulatus, 241 Ctenoid scales, 1454, 1731 Ctenophora, 1713 Cuckold, 1731 Cuckoos, 126, 1156; vocalizations, 1656 Cuculiformes, 126 Cud, 351, 1436, 1731 Cuicidae, 1070 Cultural history and evolution, 495 Cultural learning, 939 Cumulus oophorus, 586 Cuneate nuclei, 1121 Currents; beaches and, 1606 Cuspid, 1731 Cusps; valves, 743 Cuticle, 1029, 1052, 1503, 1731 Cuttlefish, 1152, 1731 Cuvier, Georges, 492, 505, 516, 628, 1565, 1710 Cyanobacteria, 1195 Cyanosis, 1505 Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 461 Cycloid scales, 1454, 1731 Cyclopes didactylus, 71 Cyclorrapha, 606 Cyclostomes, 925, 1731 Cyclura, 548 Cygnets, 1555 Cynocephalus baboons, 82 Cynomys ludovicianus, 979 Cyst, 1732 Cytochrome c, 1131 Cytodifferentiation, 332 Cytokines, 847 Cytology, 182 Cytopathogenic infections, 363 Cytoplasm, 130, 179, 237, 332, 441, 647, 1732 Cytosine (C), 1099 Cytostome, 889, 1332 Cytotoxic T cells (TC), 847 D Da Vinci, Leonardo, 1710. See Leonardo da Vinci Dalmatian pelicans, 1221 Damaliscus pygarus, 46 Dancing; arctic foxes, 286; bees, 254, 480, 867; cranes, 293;   scorpions, 1461; seahorses, 1464; squat dance, 585 Danio rerio, 667 Daphnia, 1550 Dart, Robert, 783 Darters, snail, 453 Darwin, Charles, 115, 442, 492, 1108, 1710; Agassiz, Louis, and, 1565;   animal emotions, 445; animal intelligence, 885; coevolution, 1254; description of   habituation, 717; ethology, 480; extinction, 505; fossils and evolutionary theory, 629;   human evolution, 782, 826; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, and, 496; Principle   of Antithesis, 367; theory of adaptation, 5; theory of divergent evolution, 272;   theory of evolution, 487; theory of natural selection, 8, 416, 1106; theory of sexual selection, 1374 Darwinism, 1732 Darwin's finches, 6, 9, 90, 127, 272, 560, 1107, 1525 Dassies, 840 Dasyatidae, 1489 Dasyatids, 1264 Dasypus, 72 Dasypus novemcinctus, 72 Dasyuridae, 1578 Davidson, Iain, 931 Davis, Michael, 719 Dawkins, Richard, 1286 Dawkins, W. Boyd, 782 DDT, 109; biological magnification and, 616; effect on   pelicans, 1221; endangered species and, 450; pollution, 1271 De novo condensations, 1066 Dead Sea, Israel, 920 Death, 304-307, 320, 705, 1732; aging and, 13; elephants, 436; life   spans, 949; population growth and, 1292 Death rates, 1275, 1292 Decapods, 288, 1732 Deciduous forests. See Forests, deciduous Decomposers, 259, 409, 418, 423-424, 615, 1732; zooplankton, 995 DeCoursey, Patricia, 1423 Deep sea, 1732 Deep-sea animals, 119, 308-310; eels, 429; eyes, 522; giant squid, 1152 Deer, 311-313, 625, 1062, 1629; clones, 238; coniferous forests   and, 623; farming, 382; reindeer, 1370 Deer tigers, 1073 Deevey, Edward S., 322 Defecation and osmoregulation, 1171 Defense mechanisms; fins, 591; porcupines, 645 Defense mechanisms, 5, 153, 314-319; antelope, 45;   bioluminescence, 120; elephants, 434; fossil ape teeth, 59; frogs and toads, 638;   giraffes, 670; grasshoppers, 683; groups and, 700; hair raising, 1504; horns and   antlers, 811; insects, 877; mustelids, 1674; octopuses, 1151; opossums, 1164; predation   and, 1305; reefs, 1354; salamanders, 1440; skunks, 1506; tails, 1573; territoriality and,   1593; tool use and, 1612; tusks, 1581; venom, 1262; zebras, 818 Defenses and the immune system, 845 Defensins, 1503 Defensive associations, 317 Definitive host, 1732 Degenerative diseases, 365 Dehydration, 1216, 1672 Deinonychus, 1639-1640 Delamination, 442 Delayed implantation, 477 Delayed implantation, 94, 691, 905, 1180, 1209, 1251, 1313, 1732 Delphinapterus leucas, 376, 378 Delphinidae, 376 Delphinus delphis, 376, 378 Deltas, 1607 De Mairan, Jean Jacques d'Ortous, 1424 Demes, 232, 1732; gene flow and, 661 Demographics, 320-325, 1275; ecology and, 416 Demospongiae, 1535 Dendroaspis, 1522 Dendrobatidae, 31 Dendroclimatology, 1732 Dendrocygnini, 391 Dendrohyraxes, 840 Denning, 690, 1732 Dens, 772 Density, 1732 Density-dependent growth, 1732 Density-dependent population regulation, 1732 Dental battery, 1732 Dental comb, 1732 Dental formula, 1732 Dentin, 1584 Dentine, 1453, 1732 Dentition, 1732 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 180, 333, 778, 782, 824, 1099,   1238, 1732; gene flow and, 662; Neanderthals, 1116; neutral mutations and, 1129;   phylogeny and, 1241; regeneration and, 1365 Deoxyribose, 1148 Department of Agriculture, U.S., 149 Department of the Interior, U.S., 450 Dermatophytes, 363 Dermis, 1453, 1502, 1732 Dermochelyidae, 1623 Dermochelys coriacea, 1623 Descartes, René, 1360 Descriptive ecology, 418 Desert cockroaches, 241 Desert coyotes, 328 Desert tortoises, 474 Deserts, 5, 326-330, 566-567, 711; camels, 158; Sahara, 526 Despotism, 765 Determination, 331, 336, 1732; homeosis and, 776; regeneration and, 1365 Deterrent pheromones, 1233 Detritus feeders, 1732 Deuterostomes, 1732 Development, 704, 1106; anatomy, 34; embryology, 440; ethology and, 481;   evolutionary, 337-341; evolutionary perspective, 337, 341; invertebrates, 456; sexual, 1483, 1486 Developmental biology, 117, 707 Developmental diseases, 364 Developmental genetics, 1285 Devilfish, 1489 Devonian mass extinction, 508 Dewlap, 1732 Diabetes mellitus, 806 Diapause, 1030, 1732. See Delayed implantation; estivation and, 473 Diaphragm and respiration, 1415 Diapsida, 1396 Diapsids, 1732 Diastole, 217, 741, 1732 Dickerman, Carolyn, 1256 Dictyoptera, 1301 Didelphidae, 1011, 1163 Didelphis marsupialis, 1011 Diel vertical migration, 1001, 1714 Diencephalon, 143 Diet and life spans, 951 Differentiated cells, 181 Differentiation, 130, 227, 331, 336, 441, 705, 1065, 1732; hormones and, 804; regeneration and, 1365 Diffusion, 651, 1413, 1733; circulatory systems versus, 210 Digenea, 604 Digestion, 342-347; carnivores, 246; endocrine systems and, 464; gastric   juice, 100; gastroliths and, 1448; ruminants, 1436; ruminants and   methane, 1437; thermoregulation and, 1602 Digestive tract, 35, 348-353, 1160, 1243; bacteria and, 362; cells, 182;   frogs, 638; growth of, 705; horses, 815; insects, 873; ruminants, 1436; snakes, 1520;   ungulates, 1629; water balance and, 1671 Digit, 1733 Digit (gorilla), 681 Digitigrade, 1733 Digitigrade locomotion, 966 Dihydrotestosterone, 1485 Dik-diks, 44, 979 Dilution effect, 699, 750 Dilution effects, 1733 Dima (mammoth), 989 Dimers, 846 Dimorphism, 1733 Dingoes, 382, 539, 1733 Dinoflagellates, 1332, 1560 Dinosaur tracks, 632 Dinosaurs, 16, 54, 68, 138, 354-359, 722, 1320, 1396, 1544; birds   and, 611; convergent and divergent evolution, 273; evolution, 487; extinction, 236, 448,   508, 514, 1195, 1240; herds, 752; pterosaurs and, 1336; sauropods, 1446; thermoregulation, 1603;   Triceratops, 1616; Tyrannosaurus, 1626; velociraptors, 1639 Dioecious, 1733 Dioecious animals, 646 Dioxin, 1272 Diphyllobothrium latum, 1558 Diploblastic body plan, 1083 Diplodocus, 355, 1447 Diploid, 1733 Diploid organisms, 1240 Diplopoda, 186 Diplosomite, 1733 Dipneusti, 594 Diprotodon, 1015 Diptera, 606, 1070 Directional selection, 1107 Dirofilaria immitis, 1434 Disasters and communities, 261 Discoglossidae, 31 Discontinuity theory of human language origins, 930 Discontinuous feeders, 343 Discrete growth, 1733 Discrete populations, 1275 Discrete signals, 1733 Diseases, 360-365; aging and, 13; autoimmune, 846; death and, 305;   endangered species and, 448; foot and mouth disease, 306; mosquitoes and, 1072;   rodents and, 1431; scavengers and, 1456; sleeping sickness, 528; urban and suburban   wildlife and, 1637; vectors, 876; veterinary medicine and, 1645;   wildlife management and, 1692 Dishabituation, 717 Disharmonic, 1733 Disjunct, 1733 Disks, 1643 Dispersal, 1036, 1733 Disphotic zone, 994 Displays, 122, 252, 266, 366-369, 1478, 1733; courtship and, 369; emotions   and, 444; grooming as, 693; groups and, 699; hawks, 733; horns and antlers, 811; mating   and, 1018; pair-bonding and, 1193; pseudoscorpions, 284; tails and, 1575; territoriality   and, 1593; vision and, 1650; vocalizations and, 1654 Dispsosaurus dorsalis, 328 Disruptive coloration, 1733 Disruptive selection, 1107 Distal, 1733 Distemper, 1733 Disturbance in ecosystems, 426 Diurnal, 1733 Diurnal animals, 1422 Divergence, 1733 Divergent evolution, 271, 276 Diversity, 1733 Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 495, 894 Dodo birds, 615 Dog salmon, 1443 Dogs, 147, 370-374, 1451; African hunting, 980; aging, 13;   carnivores, 166; conditioned learning, 937; domestication, 382; dreams, 1510; estrus, 477;   foxes and, 634; groups and hunting, 701; military, 1648; Tasmanian devils and, 1578;   urban and suburban wildlife, 1635 Dolly (sheep), 668 Dolphins, 375, 379, 1684; convergent evolution, 274; echolocation, 402, 1615;   emotions, 446; flippers, 592; ichthyosaurs and, 843 Domestication, 147, 380-384, 1733; breeding and, 149; cattle, 175;   dogs, 370; elephants, 434; fowl, 197; genetics and, 664; goats, 673; horses, 816;   hybridization, 235; pigs, 1246; reindeer, 1370; ruminants, 1436; sheep, 1493; sheep and   wool, 643; veterinary medicine and, 1645 Dominance, 1733; pecking orders and, 766 Dominance and food, 767 Dominance hierarchies, 765, 1187, 1733 Dominance social behavior, 1733 Dominant, 1733 Dominant species, 260, 488, 1733 Doñana National Park, Spain, 555 Donkeys, 383, 385-387, 748, 1631 Dopamine, 446, 1733 Dormancy, 762 Dorsal, 1733 Dorsobronchi, 1408 Double helix, 667 Doves, 126; ring, 798 Downy woodpeckers, 1127, 1703 Draco, 961 Dracunculus medinensis, 1561 Drag, 966, 1734 Dragonflies, 328, 1550 Dreams; animals and, 1510 Dreissna polymorpha, 1051 Drepanidinae, 1525 Dromaeosaurs, 1639 Dromedaries, 156 Drone, 1734 Drosophila melanogaster, 49, 666-667, 706, 1030, 1102-1103, 1141, 1366, 1695 Drumming, 1734 Dryopithecines, 58, 783, 1734 Dryopithecus, 1326 Dual-process habituation-sensitization theory, 717 Duarte, Cidàlia, 1116 Dubois, Eugène, 784, 823 Duck_billed dinosaurs, 722, 752 Duck-billed platypuses, 1059 Ducks, 125, 383, 388-393, 1552; imprinting, 850; instincts, 881; Muscovy, 383; vocalizations, 1656 Duct, spiral, 738 Duetting, 255 Duhamel, Henri-Louis, 1424 Duikers, 44, 526, 979 Dung beetles, 106, 1456 Dung showering, 1734 Duodenum, 351, 1734 Dupes (mimicry), 1042 Dusky seaside sparrows, 453 Dwarf crocodiles, 299 Dwarf sharks, 1487 Dying, 304-307 Dynein, 964 E Eagle owls, 1182 Eagle rays, 1489 Eagles, 126, 394-398; bald, 109, 450, 735; booted, 731; golden, 328;   harpy, 731; lesser spotted, 732; monkey-eating, 536; Philippine, 735; serpent, 733;   snake, 733; white-tailed sea, 735 Ear canal, 402 Ear drum, 738 Ear flaps, 403 Eared seals, 1467 Earless seals, 1467 Ears, 399-404, 737; amphibians, 738; bats, 1136; birds, 738; clines   and, 232; crocodiles, 296; dogs, 370; elephants, 434; fish, 738; grasshoppers, 684; mammals, 738;   owls, 1183-1184; reptiles, 738; snakes, 1522; thermoregulation and, 1601; whales, 1684 Earthworms; copulation, 277; hermaphrodites, 755; hydrostatic   skeletons, 833; immune system, 845; ingestion, 861; nervous systems, 142 East Indian pigs, 1246 Easter Island; fauna, 570 Eastern oysters, 220 Eberhardt method, 1008 Eccrine gland, 1734 Ecdysis, 76, 501, 1052, 1503, 1734 Ecdysone, 457, 1030, 1053, 1366, 1734 Ecdysteroids, 458 Echidnas, 279, 571, 1059. See also Spiny anteaters Echinoderms, 41, 405-408, 891, 999, 1240, 1713; endocrine   systems, 456; hydrostatic skeletons, 834; nervous systems, 142; regeneration, 1364;   sea anemones, 79; starfish, 1541 Echinoidea, 407 Echolocation, 328, 402, 1137, 1475, 1612, 1658, 1734; bats, 86, 1136;   ears and, 402; Odontoceti, 377; whales, 1683 Eclipse (molting), 1055 Eclipse plumage, 1734 Ecological communities, 259 Ecological isolation, 895 Ecological niches, 3, 8, 271, 1076, 1734; Caribbean, 546; competition   and, 266; fish, 595; hybridization and, 234; marsupials, 1014 Ecological pyramids, 424 Ecological studies, 410; Caribbean, 547 Ecological succession, 418 Ecological theory and life spans, 953 Ecology, 107, 117, 415-421, 495, 509, 1253, 1692, 1711, 1734; competition   and, 265; demography and, 320; ecological niches, 409-414; ethology and, 480; islands, 570-571;   mathematical models, 411, 419; natural selection and, 1106; paleoecology and, 1194;   predation and, 1307; studies, 109, 114; urban and suburban wildlife, 1633 Ecomorph, 1734 Ecosystem, 1734 Ecosystems, 259, 271, 409, 422-427, 615; Arctic, 532; chaparral, 191;   coevolution and, 243; coral reefs, 41; endangered species and, 448; food chains and, 614;   forests, 627; grasslands, 687; habitats and, 710; lakes and rivers, 920; mountains, 1076;   pollution and, 1269; predation and, 1308; swamps and marshes, 1552; trophic levels and, 617 Ectoderm, 228, 333, 441, 705, 1080, 1734 Ectoparasites, 1560, 1734 Ectoplasm, 965 Ectothermic homeothermy, 1025 Ectotherms, 249, 1600, 1663, 1734 Edentates, 2, 71, 985 Ediacarans, 1081, 1575 Ediacarian fauna, 1734 Eels, 428-430, 598; migration, 1004; pelican, 308; tails, 1576 Effector, 1734 Efferent neurons, 1120 Egg polarity genes, 776 Egg tooth, 131, 1734; monotremes, 1060 Eggs, 130, 441, 646, 705, 1065, 1249, 1310, 1319, 1373, 1385,   1478, 1483, 1713; dinosaurs, 356; lizards, 958; monotremes, 1059; ostriches, 1177;   platypuses, 1259; reptiles, 1395 Egrets, 1552 Egyptian vultures, 1660 Eider ducks, 391 Ejaculation, 1392, 1734 Ejaculatory duct, 1392 Elands, 44, 526 Elanoides forficatus, 732 Elaphurus davidianus, 451 Elapids, 1263, 1582, 1734 Elasmobranch, 1734 Elasmobranchii, 1487 Eldredge, Niles, 1340 Electric fish; tails, 1576 Electric rays, 1489 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 1734 Electrolyte imbalance, 1672 Electromagnetoreceptors, 1473 Electromyography, 207 Electron transport chain, 1734 Electrophoresis, 1734 Electroreception, 1474 Electroreceptors, 737, 1488, 1734 Elephant birds, 123, 563; extinction, 450 Elephant seals, 431-433, 1467-1468; blubber, 1467; mate   competition, 1374; territoriality and, 1594 Elephant shrews, 1500 Elephants, 108, 147, 434-436, 537, 747, 1450; emotions, 446; heart   rates, 742; human conflict, 526; hyraxes and, 839; poaching, 452; population decline, 526;   tool use, 1613; tusks, 1583; understanding of death, 307; vocalizations, 1658; zoos, 1717 11-cis retinal, 522 Elf owls, 1182 Elfin forest, 191, 1734 Elk, 437-439, 625; antlers, 813; coniferous forests and, 623; herds, 752; moose, 1062 Elliptical wings, 1697 Elton, Charles, 409, 423 Elytra, 1734 Emberizidae, 1525 Embryo, 984, 1311, 1735 Embryo polarity genes, 1735 Embryology, 11, 130, 229, 334, 440-443, 495, 704, 1238, 1710, 1735 Embryonic induction, 332, 1735 Ementia, 1144 Emergent vegetation, 1735 Emigration, 1275, 1292, 1735 Emotions, 306, 444-447; brain and, 143; grooming and, 694;   octopuses, 1151; vocalizations and, 1659 Empedocles, 491 Emperor penguins, 1222 Emus, 123, 543, 1177; farming, 384 Encounter effect, 699 Encounter effects, 1735 Encystment, 1331 Endangered species; habitat destruction and, 713; in vitro fertilization   and, 587; poaching and, 452 Endangered species, 107, 150, 448-455, 1735; badgers, 1677; brown   pelicans, 1221; cats, 173; cloning, 236, 239; cranes, 293; eagles, 397; ecological   niches and, 413; elephant seals, 432; elephants, 434; Europe, 553; fur and, 644;   genetic equilibrium and, 727; gorillas, 682; hawks, 735; inbreeding, genetic drift, and, 1141;   lemurs, 943; leopards, 947; marsupials, 1011; orangutans, 1166; otters, 1677; pandas, 94, 1210;   seals, 1468; storks, 1548; swans, 1555; Tasmanian devils, 1579;   tigers, 1610; turtles, 1624; whales, 378, 1685 Endangered Species Act, 110, 304, 450, 645, 1272, 1677 Endangered Species Preservation Act (1966), 450 Endemic, 1735 Endocannibalism, 1735 Endochondrial bone, 136 Endocrine, 456-465 Endocrine glands, 805, 1735 Endocrine systems, 36, 1243, 1735; behavior and, 802; diseases   and, 364; invertebrates, 456, 460; molting, 1052; osmoregulation   and, 1172; rhythms and, 1425; vertebrates, 461, 465 Endocrinology, 800 Endocuticle, 500, 1497, 1735 Endocytosis, 859 Endoderm, 228, 333, 441, 705, 1080 Endogenous, 1735 Endolymph, 737 Endometrium, 1386, 1735 Endoparasitic, 1735 Endoplasm, 965 Endoplasmic reticulum, 181 Endoreceptors, 1473 Endoskeletons, 34, 134, 466-471, 1642, 1687, 1735; amphibians, 637;   fossilization and, 630; locomotion and, 964-965; mammals, 984; spiny, 405 Endothermic homeothermy, 1025 Endotherms, 249, 1600, 1663, 1735 Energy budgets, 416, 418, 1107; digestion and, 1160; population   size and, 424; predation and, 1306; reproduction, 1479 Energy conversion, 410 Energy pyramid, 618, 1735 Energy pyramids, 616 Energy transfer; food webs and, 616 Enterocytes, 352, 1735 Entomology, 100, 1711 Entrainment, 1735 Environment, 1735; abiotic and biotic aspects, 1253; changes   and dinosaur extinction, 356; ecology and, 415; evolution and, 489; fluctuation, 412;   fluctuation and communities, 260; instincts and, 880; language and, 932; life spans   and, 304, 951; metamorphosis and, 1028; mountains, 1077; mutations and, 1101; natural   selection and, 1106; nervous systems and, 1119; paleoecology and, 1194; pollution   effects, 1269; populations and, 1285; sense organs and, 1471; sex determination and,   1483; skin and, 1502; social organizations and, 978; speciation and, 1340; thermoregulation   and, 249; tool use and, 1612; vocalizations and, 1655; water and, 1669 Environmental change; extinction and, 508 Environmental constraints, 1735 Environmental Defense Fund, 110 Environmental hypoxia, 1401 Environmental Law Institute, 110 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 304 Enzymes, 181, 1149, 1229, 1599, 1735; digestion and, 344, 348; restriction, 668 Eohippus, 815 Eosinophil chemotactic factor, 807 Ephyra, 904 Epiblast, 229 Epicuticle, 500, 1497, 1735 Epidemics and the immune system, 847 Epidemiology and ecology, 420 Epidermal growth factor, 807 Epidermis, 1502, 1735; exoskeletons, 500 Epididymis, 1391 Epifauna, 1735 Epigenesis, 440 Epihyal, 1735 Epihyal bone, 1073 Epinephrine, 462, 802, 1025 Epipelagic zone, 994 Epiphragm, 473, 1736 Epiphysial plates, 136 Epithelia, 973 Epithelial cells, 182, 1502 Epithelio-chorial placenta, 1250 Epithelium, 652, 1736 Epitokes, 585, 1707 Epizoites, 1558 Equidae, 385, 815 Equids, 1736 Equilibrium; communities and, 261; natural selection and, 1106 Equine infectious anemia, 1647 Equus asinus, 383 Equus caballus, 383 Equus caballus przewalskii, 451 Erdmann, Mark, 506 Erect-crested penguins, 1222 Erectile tissue, 1392 Erection, 1736 Ermine, 1674 Erthyrocytes, 1414 Erythropoietin, 807 Escape responses, 1359 Escherichia coli, 362 Eschicthius robustus, 1685 Esophagus, 343, 350, 1736 Essentialism, 492, 1736 Estivation, 473-475, 1736 Estrogen, 462-463, 649, 798, 916, 1311, 1736 Estrogens; environmental, 1272; estrus and, 476 Estrus, 476-479, 1311, 1387; courtship and, 283; groups and, 698 Estrus cycle, 1736 Estuaries, 923, 1550, 1608 Estuarine zones, 994 Ethograms, 483 Ethological isolation, 895 Ethology, 21, 117, 202, 254, 480-485, 851, 880, 936, 1327,   1478, 1711, 1736; Lorenz, Konrad, 850 Ethylene oxide, 1100 Etiology, 360 Euglena, 889, 1331 Euglenozoa, 889 Eukaryotes, 486, 964, 1080, 1239, 1568, 1736 Eumetazoa, 1082 Eunice viridis, 585 Euphractus, 72 European fauna. See Fauna: Europe European moles, 1045 European sea eagles, 394 European short-toed eagles, 395 European starfish, 1542 European wild boars, 1246 Euryapsida, 842, 1396 Euryhaline, 1736 Eurypterids, 63, 503 Eusocial, 1736 Eusocial colonies, 977 Eusthenopteron, 1318 Eusuchia, 295 Eutheria, 1241, 1250 Eutrophication, 619 Evaginations; gas exchange and, 651 Everglades National Park, 584 Everglades, Florida, 1273 Evergreen forests, 620 Evolution, 117, 1108, 1139, 1736; adaptations, 3, 7; adaptive   radiation, 8, 11; Agassiz, Louis, 1565; altruism and, 20; analysis of human, 823, 828;   animal life, 103, 486-490; bison, 176; cartilaginous fish, 1491; cattle, 175; convergent, 119,   271, 276; development, 337, 341; divergent, 8, 10, 271, 276; ecology and, 415; emotions and, 446;   endoskeletons and, 466; fins, 589; flight, 611; Hardy-Weinberg law and, 725; heterochrony   and, 758; historical perspective, 491-498; homeosis and, 779; Homo, 790; humans, 1116;   infanticide and, 857; instincts and, 880; intelligence and, 886; isolating, 894-898;   isolating mechanisms, 894, 898; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 496; language and, 930;   marsupials, 1014; mutations and, 1099; natural selection and, 1106; neutral mutations and, 1129;   oxygen use and, 1404; phylogeny and, 1238; physiology and, 1244; population genetics and, 1287;   sex differences, 1482; social groups, 865; speech and, 1657; systematics and, 1568;   vertebrates, 208, 1643; vision and, 1651; Wallace, Alfred Russel, 1111 Evolutionarily stable strategy, 1736 Evolutionary biology, 495 Evolutionary change and genetics, 727 Evolutionary clocks, 1129, 1134 Evolutionary explosions. See Extinction and evolutionary explosions Evolutionary theory, 5; baboons, 83; coevolution and, 243; embryology   and, 230 Evolutionary zoology, 1736 Ewe, 1736 Ex situ, 1736 Excretory structures, 908, 911 Exocannibalism, 1736 Exocuticle, 500, 1497, 1736 Exocytosis, 457, 1496 Exogenous, 1736 Exoskeletons, 63, 314, 499-504, 1736; athropod, 75; cockroaches, 240;   coral, 280; crustaceans, 300; endoskeletons compared to, 466; horseshoe crabs, 820; insects, 874;   locomotion and, 963; metamorphosis and, 1029; molting, 1052; molting and, 1053;   muscles and, 1092; shedding, 1503; shells, 1497; spiders, 1530 Exotic species, 108, 263, 413, 420, 571, 1736; Antarctica, 531;   diplomatic gifts, 1719; endangered species and, 448; Pacific Islands, 569; zoos and, 1716 Experimental ecology, 419 Exponential growth, 1293, 1736 Extensors, 1090 External auditory meatus, 739 External fertilization, 1736 External genitals, 1736 External naris, 1144 Exteroreceptors, 1473 Extinct, 1736 Extinction, 8, 236, 505-511, 516, 617; biodiversity and, 107;   Caribbean animals, 548; carnivores, 168; cloning and, 238; communities and, 262;   dinosaurs, 356; dodo birds, 615; evolution and, 489; evolutionary explosions and, 512, 519;   geologic periods and, 1202; habitat destruction and, 713; human contribution to, 304;   ivory-billed woodpeckers, 1704; mammals, 983; mammoths, 989; poaching and, 452;   pollution and, 1269; population fluctuations and, 1279; punctuated equilibrium and, 1340;   rates, 448; Tasmanian tigers, 1014 Extirpated, 1736 Extracellular digestion, 343 Extracellular fluid, 1669, 1736 Extracellular matrix (ECM), 1065 Extrapallial space, 1498 Exxon Valdez, 305 Eyes, 520-523, 1317, 1319, 1650; crustacean, 300; dogs, 370; eye   spot, 520; hawks, 732; horseshoe crabs, 820; owls, 1184;   primates, 1324; scorpions, 1460; sleep and, 1512; spiders, 1531 F Facial disk, 1736 Facilitory interneurons, 718 Facultative anaerobes, 1331 Fahrenheit, 1736 Fairy penguins, 1222 Falco sparverius, 1636 Falconidae, 394 Falconiformes, 126, 394, 731 Falconry, 735 Falcons, 126, 394; peregrine, 109, 450 Fallopian tubes, 1386 Fangs, 1581-1585, 1737; snakes, 1523 Fast muscle, 1737 Fat and skin, 1503 Fat-tailed lemurs, 944 Fate determination, 1065 Fate map, 1737 Fate maps, 1366 Fats, 1147 Fauna; Africa, 1, 44, 82, 524-529; Antarctica, 530-531; Arctic, 532-533;   Asia, 44, 534-538; Australia, 539-545; Caribbean, 546-548; Central America, 549-552;   Europe, 553-558; Galápagos Islands, 90; Galápagos Islands, 6, 559-560; Madagascar, 450,   561-563, 943, 1326; North America, 564, 566-568; Pacific Islands,   569-574; South America, 71, 575, 577-581 Fauna Preservation Society, 451 Faunal succession, 632 Fear, 445 Feather stars, 406 Feathers, 122, 582-584, 845, 1319, 1321; ducks, 389; evolution, 68;   grooming, 693; hummingbirds, 829; molting, 1052; ostriches, 1176; penguins, 1222;   sleep and, 1509; sparrows, 1525; swans, 1554; tails and, 1573; thermoregulation   and, 1601; types, 611; vultures, 1660; wings, 1697; woodpeckers, 1702 Feces, 343, 352, 1671; lagomorphs, 1345; pheromones and, 1233 Fecundity, 322, 1737 Feedback, 1737 Feeding reflexes, 1359 Feet, 966; gastropods, 1048; hyraxes, 839; platypuses, 1259;   starfish, 1542; tube, 406, 834; turtles, 1622; woodpeckers, 1702 Felidae, 955, 1609, 1635 Feliforms, 985 Feline leukemia virus (FeLV), 362, 1647 Felis, 170, 1073 Felis catus, 383 Felis catus libyca, 383 Felis concolor, 977 Felis concolor coryi, 1075 Felis rufus, 328 Felis sylvestris lybica, 173 Female, 1737 Females and pair-bonding roles, 1193 Fenestration, 1737 Feral, 1737 Feral animals, 1635 Fermentation; ruminant digestion, 1437 Fermentation in digestion, 344 Ferrets; black-footed, 453, 687; prairie dogs and, 262 Fertilization, 130, 277, 331, 441, 585-588, 646, 705, 893, 1017,   1313, 1385, 1737; external, 27; failure, 895; internal and external, 1018; marine   animals, 1002; mollusks, 1050; worms, 1706 Fetus, 1312, 1737 Fibrocytes, 182 Fibronectin, 1066 Fibula, 1737 Fiddler crabs, 303 Field Museum, Chicago, 1627 Field observations, 1737 Fight-or-flight response, 1504 Fight-or-flight response, 445, 802 File, Sandra, 719 Filter feeding, 860 Filtration, 909, 1737 Fimbria, 1386 Fin-fold theory, 589, 1737 Finback whales, 1685 Finches, 1525-1529; tool use, 1613. See also Darwin's finches Finches, Darwin's. See Darwin's finches Fins, 589-594, 925; claspers, 278; convergent evolution, 274; false   penis, 278; flight and, 1696; ichthyosaurs, 842; rays and skates, 1489;   seahorses, 1463; sharks, 1488 Fiordland penguins, 1222 Fire; chaparral and, 192; communities and, 260; grasslands and, 686 Fire ants, 867 Fire ecology, 1737 Fireflies, 120, 876; communication and, 253 Fish, 41, 469, 566, 594-599, 996, 1317, 1551, 1642; Africa, 524;   bioluminescence, 119; birth, 132; brain, 143; Central America, 552; circulatory   systems, 217; defense mechanisms, 315; electric, 1576; Europe, 556; fangs, 1583;   flying, 1696; gills, 973; hearts, 742; herbivores, 747; omnivores, 1161; pH maintenance, 1228;   poisonous, 1264; pollution and, 1272; scales, 1453; seahorses, 1463; sharks and rays, 1487;   skin, 1502; smell, 1515; thermoregulation, 249; whale sharks, 1679; white sharks, 1687 Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S., 111, 313, 448, 1221, 1444, 1692 Fish eagles, 394 Fish lice, 1558 Fisher, R. A., 726, 1286 Fishers, 1675 Fishing owls, 1184 Fission, 1016, 1331, 1737 Fitness, 1737; natural selection and, 1106; reproductive strategies and, 1380 FitzRoy, Robert, 1108 5-bromouracil (5BU), 1100 Fixed action pattern, 1737 Fixed action patterns (FAPs), 880 Flagella, 182, 860, 963, 1331, 1536 Flagellate, 1737 Flagellate cells, 1082 Flagellum, 1737 Flame cells, 909 Flamingos, 125, 600-602, 921; ingestion, 861; nests, 773 Flap-necked chameleons, 190 Flatworms, 39, 79, 603-605, 832, 1081, 1560; copulation, 277;   ingestion, 861; nervous systems, 142 Fleas, 876 Fledgling period, 1737 Flehmen, 671, 1737; horses, 815 Flexor reflex, 1358 Flexors, 1090 Flies, 606-608; Africa, 527; antennae, 48; tsetse, 528 Flight, 122, 609-613, 965-966; bats, 86; bees, 101; evolution, 68;   feathers and, 583; flying fish, 1696; groups and, 702; hummingbirds, 829; molting   and, 1054; origin, 69; ostriches, 1176; owls, 1184; pterosaurs, 1337;   respiration and, 1407; wings and, 1695 Flippers, 589-593, 1319, 1737; manatees, 991; seals, 1466; turtles, 1622; whales, 375, 1682 Florida manatees, 991 Florida panthers, 1073 Flow and respiration, 653 Flow rates in flying, 609 Flow valve, 1654 Fluctuations, population, 1279 Fluid, 1737 Fluid feeders, 344 Fluid transport systems, 211 Fluids and gas exchange, 652 Flukes, 589, 603, 1560; diseases and, 363; whales, 375 Fluorescence, 1461 Fluorine dating, 11 Flying lizards, 961 Flying fish, 612, 1696 Flying foxes, 543, 562 Flying squirrels, 1127; rhythms, 1423; tails, 1574 Flyway, 1737 Flyways, 659 Focal length, 520 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 462, 649, 805, 1385, 1390 Follicles, 1386, 1737; hair, 643 Food; courtship and, 369; herds and, 750; packs and, 1187 Food chains, 259, 423, 614-619, 863, 1253, 1714, 1737; eagles, 397;   endangered species and, 449; herbivores and, 748; lakes and rivers, 922; protozoa   and, 1333; ruminants, 1436; snails, 1518 Food pyramids, 409, 1737 Food supply; social organizations and, 978 Food webs, 259, 418, 423, 614-619, 1253, 1737; Antarctica, 531;   marine, 1001; predation and, 1306 Foot and mouth disease, 306 Foraging; groups and, 701 Foraminifers, 1333 Forbes, Edward, 308 Forbes, Stephen Alfred, 422 Forebrain, 143, 1120 Forel, Auguste Henri, 1422 Forensic entomology, 877 Foreshore, 1605 Forest fire beetles, 1475 Forest Service, U.S., 1692 Forest zones, 1351 Forests; coniferous, 564, 620-623, 711; deciduous, 566, 624-627, 711;   kelp, 1003; rain, 1350-1353 Fossas, 562 Fossey, Dian, 679, 681 Fossil fuels, 1270 Fossils, 628-633, 1080, 1238, 1316, 1737; amphibians, 27-29; antelope, 45;   armadillos, 74; arthropod, 77; birds, 127; bones, 135; cats, 170; chordates, lower, 208;   cockroaches, 240; convergent and divergent evolution, 272, 274; Cuvier, Georges, 516;   dinosaurs, 356; evolution and, 6, 10, 486, 489, 1341; exoskeletons and, 503; extinction, 515;   higher primates, 57; hominid, 824; hominids, 790; ichthyosaurs, 842; insects, 1695;   Lagerstätten, 631; lampreys and hagfish, 925; lungfish, 970; marsupials, 1014; molecular   clocks and, 1130; monotremes, 1059; opossums, 1163; paleoecology and, 1194; paleontology   and, 1199; phylogeny and, 1240; primates, 1327; pterosaurs, 1336; reptiles, 1395;   rhinoceroses, 1419; sponges, 1535; termites, 1589; Tyrannosaurus, 1626; whales, 1575 Founder effects, 1140 Four-chambered heart, 983 Four-fin system, 1738 Foutes, Roger, 934 Fovea, 521, 1652, 1738 Fox squirrels, 1127, 1538 Foxes, 634-636, 687, 1637; arctic, 534; Australia, 539; defense   mechanisms, 315; red, 980; South America, 578 Foxes, flying. See Flying foxes Franklin, Rosalind, 667 Fraticide, 1738 Free-living, 1738 Free-running, 1738 French, Victor, 1367 Frenulum, 1738 Frequencies in sound waves, 739 Frequency, 1738 Frequency-dependent predation, 1738 Freud, Sigmund, 853 Fricke, Hans, 506 Friction and flight, 610 Frill, 1738 Fringillidae, 1525 Fringillinae, 1525 Fringing reefs, 892, 1355 Frisch, Karl von, 254, 480, 850, 867, 880, 939 Frogs, 30-31, 637-641, 1552, 1642; bullfrogs, 328; Caribbean, 547;   Central America, 552; clines and grass frogs, 233; courtship, 284; ears, 400; estivation, 474;   gas exchange, 1416; hairy, 527; leopard, 233; Madagascar, 562; poisonous, 1265;   pollution and, 1272; reproduction, 640; skin, 1503; taxonomy, 31; vocalizations, 1656 Front presentation, 131 Frontal bone, 1738 Frozen zoo, 1738 Frozen zoos, 239 Fruit bats, 571 Fruit flies, 667, 1030, 1102, 1141, 1695; genetics and, 666; homeosis   in, 776; regeneration, 1366. See also Drosophila melangogaster Fugitive species, 1305 Functional response, 1305, 1738 Fungi, 363, 1080 Fungus gnats, 120 Funnel, 1738 Funnel web spiders, 65 Fur, 642-645, 845; beavers, 97; grooming, 693; howler monkeys, 551;   koalas, 912; mink, 1677; monotremes, 1060; mustelids, 1674; otters, 1179; polar   bears, 1266; shedding, 1052; sleep and, 1509; thermoregulation and, 566, 1601, 1664 Fur seals, 1468 Furcula, 1738 Furnarius, 1125 Fushi tarazu, 778 Fusion-fission community, 1738 G Gaboon vipers, 1264 Gaia, 243 Galagos, 527 Galápagos Island fauna. See Fauna: Galápagos Islands Galápagos penguins, 1222 Galápagos Rift Zone, 997 Galápagos tortoises, 559 Galdikas, Biruté, 1168 Galen, 1360, 1709 Galeocerdo cuvieri, 1488 Gallbladder, 351 Galliformes, 126 Gallus gallus, 383 Galton, Francis, 380 Game, 1738 Game management, 1690 Game theory, 1596 Gametes, 130, 585, 1016, 1331, 1373, 1385, 1478, 1738 Gametogenesis, 441, 646-650, 665 Gamma interferon, 1131 Gamma rays, 1101 Ganges dolphins, 376, 378 Ganglia, 143, 1706 Ganoid scales, 1453, 1738 Ganoine, 1454 Gap genes, 777 Gap junctions, 1096 Gap rule genes, 1738 Garden snails, 1518 Gardner, Allen, 933 Gardner, Beatrice, 933 Garrod, Archibald, 1100 Gars, 1453 Garstang, Walter, 339 Gas exchange, 651-656, 972, 1416; birds, 1408; protozoa, 1331;   respiratory system and, 1413; water balance and, 1670 Gastric inhibitory polypeptide, 464 Gastrin, 464 Gastroliths, 55, 1448, 1545, 1738 Gastronomic, 1738 Gastropods, 1048, 1498; snails, 1517 Gastrovascular cavity, 349 Gastrula, 1738 Gastrulation, 227, 231, 441, 705, 1738 Gaurs, 237, 538 Gavialidae, 295 Gavials, 295, 537. See also Gharials Gaviiformes, 125 Gazelles, 44, 1450 Geckos, 80, 961; flying, 1698 Geese, 125, 383, 388, 657-659, 1552; emotions, 446; ethology   and, 481; hierarchies, 767; imprinting, 850; snow, 1139 Geikie, James, 782 Gelada baboons, 1189 Gelding, 1738 Gemmule, 1738 Gemsboks, 45 Gender and territoriality, 1594 Gene amplification, 333 Gene control and hormones, 808 Gene flow, 10, 232, 660-663, 1738 Gene migration, 234 Gene pools, 10, 1738; habitats and, 709 Gene therapy, 668 Generalized, 1738 Generations, 1275 Genes, 180, 1331, 1477, 1710, 1738; differentiation and, 332; enzymes   and, 1101; homeosis and, 776; hormones and, 805; life spans and, 304; regulation, 1102;   regulatory, 339; sexual development and, 754 Genetic code, 1738 Genetic diversity, 1738 Genetic drift, 727, 824, 1106, 1139, 1143, 1287, 1739; population fluctuations and, 1283 Genetic engineering; natural selection and, 1110 Genetic selection; domestication and, 380 Genetic variability, 1480; mutations and, 1141 Genetics, 117, 149, 664-669, 725, 794, 1099, 1711; behavior and, 798;   birds, 128; diversity, 587; ethology and, 481; evolution, 487, 660; extinction and, 507;   Hardy-Weinberg law of genetic equilibrium, 725, 730; homeosis and, 776; instincts   and, 881; learning and, 939; mating and, 1017; natural selection   and, 1106; populations, 1285; regeneration and, 1367; reproduction, 21 Genets, 527 Genital swelling, 476 Genital tubercle, 1484, 1739 Genitalia, 1739 Genome, 333, 1739 Genotype, 1739 Genotype frequency, 1739 Gentoo penguins, 1222 Gentry, Roger L., 477 Genus, 1239, 1566, 1739 Geochelone, 1622 Geochelone elephantopus, 559, 1623 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Étienne, 492 Geoffroyism, 1739 Geographically isolated, 1739 Geological periods, 1739 Geology, 509, 515 Geomyidae, 676 Geomys bursarius, 676 Geophilidae, 185 Geosaurs, 295 Geospizinae, 1525 Gerbils, 163, 1137, 1431 Germ layers, 1739 German cockroaches, 240 Gestation, 441, 1251, 1310, 1739; marsupials, 1013; reproductive strategies and, 1380 Gharials, 295, 298, 537. See also Gavials Ghost Ranch Quarry, New Mexico, 355 Giant tortoises, 1623 Giant anteaters, 71 Giant clams, 220 Giant golden moles, 1046 Giant Pacific octopuses, 1151 Giant spider crabs, 302 Giant squid, 309, 1000, 1048, 1152; tentacles, 1587 Giant White turkeys, 199 Gibbons, 537, 1326; pair-bonding, 1192 Gigantopithecus, 59 Gigantothermy, 1739 Gila monsters, 960, 1262 Gill plates, 1695 Gill rakers, 860, 1488, 1679, 1739 Gills, 594, 652, 820, 891, 925, 972-976, 1241, 1413, 1670, 1739;   amphibians, 637; arthropod, 76; circulation and, 217; development, 338; hearts and, 742;   lungfish, 969; osmoregulation and, 1171; pH maintenance and, 1228; snails, 1517 Gilt, 1739 Gir Forest Lion Sanctuary, India, 537, 956 Giraffes, 670-672, 1630, 1719 Gizzard, 198, 343, 351, 1739 Glaciations, 530 Glands, 805, 1739; lactation, 915; pheromones and, 1233; spiders, 1533 Glans, 1392 Glass lizards, 961 Glass snakes, 1573 Glass sponges, 1535-1536 Glassfish, 1558 Glaucomys volans, 1127 Gliding, 965 Glires, 986 Global extinction, 1739 Global warming, 714, 1273 Globigerina menardii, 1195 Globigerina pachyderma, 1195 Globocephala malaena, 376, 378 Gloger's rule, 233 Glomerulus, 910, 1739 Glossina, 607 Glottis, 1523 Glowworms, 120 Glucagon, 462, 806 Glucocorticoids, 462, 806 Gluconeogenesis, 462 Glucose, 1170 Gluttons, 535 Glycogen, 1148 Glycosylation, 952 Gnathobases, 820 Gnathostomata, 925, 1739 Gnus. See Wildebeests Goannas, 542 Goats, 47, 147, 382, 673-675, 1437, 1631; foot and mouth disease, 306;   wool, 643 Gobies, 595 Goff, M. Lee, 877 Golden bamboo lemurs, 943 Golden eagles, 328, 396 Golden moles, 1046 Golden-rumped shrews, 1500 Goldfinches, 1525 Goldschmidt, Richard, 340 Golgi apparatus, 181 Gombe Stream Research Centre, Tanzania, 202 Gombe Stream Reserve, Tanzania, 1327 Gonadotropin, 1739 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 649, 1390 Gonadotropins, 462 Gonads, 646, 1385, 1391, 1484, 1739; sex change and, 755 Gondwanaland, 513 Gonochorism, 1478, 1739 Gonopodia; fish, 278 Goodall, Jane, 202, 445, 720 Goose. See Geese Gophers, 676-678 Gorget, 1739 Gorgonians, 280 Gorilla Game Reserve, Uganda, 682 Gorilla gorilla, 679 Gorillas, 527, 679-682, 782, 1326; birth, 131; homes, 774;   mountain, 681 Goshawks, 731-732 Gosse, Philip H., 1718 Gould, Stephen Jay, 339, 758, 1340 Gracile, 1739 Gracile nuclei, 1121 Gradient regeneration model, 1367 Gradualism, 1339, 1739 Grammar, 931 Gran Paradiso National Park, Italy, 556 Grand Canyon National Park and Game Preserve, Arizona, 688 Grant's golden moles, 1046 Granular glands, 1739 Grass owls, 1182 Grasshoppers, 683-685; ears, 399; genetics and, 666 Grasslands, 24, 44, 566, 686-689, 711, 1450; habitat destruction, 713 Gray matter, 143, 1739 Gray squirrels, 1127, 1538 Gray whales, 1685 Gray wolves, 371 Graylings, 1443 Grazer, 1740 Grazing; herbivores and, 687; herds and, 750 Grazing lawns, 750 Great auks, 509 Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 1356 Great horned owls, 1182 Great Lakes, North America, 920, 926, 1051, 1272 Great white pelicans, 1219 Great white sharks. See White sharks Greater dwarf lemurs, 944 Grebes, 125 Green herons, 1614 Green sea turtles; migration, 1004 Greenhouse effect, 510, 1740; dinosaur extinction and, 356 Greenhouse Effect; ruminant digestion and, 1437 Gregarious, 1740 Grevy's zebras, 817 Griffin, Donald, 256, 885 Griffon vultures, 1660 Grinnel, Joseph, 409 Grizzly bears, 450, 690-692, 1620; poaching, 452 Grooming, 693-697; communication and, 252; pair-bonding and, 1193;   social, 203; tool use and, 1612 Grosbeaks, 1525 Ground squirrels, 1538 Groundhogs, 761 Groundwater, 1270 Group selection, 1109 Groups, 5, 19, 698-703, 865; altruism and, 19; baboons, 83; beavers, 96,   774; cheetahs, 195; chimpanzees, 201; cooperation and, 867; coral, 280; goats, 674;   herds and, 751; hunting and, 166; hyraxes, 839; language and, 931; lions, 172, 955;   monkeys, 1058; orangutans, 1167; pheromones and, 1233; seals, 1466; sheep, 1494; sleep   and, 1509; squirrels, 1540; urban and suburban wildlife, 1634 Grouse; competition among, 267; mate competition, 1375; willow, 534 Growth, 704-708, 1065, 1740; bones and, 135; cephalopods, 1153;   endocrine systems and, 461; exoskeletons and, 501; heterochrony and, 757; invertebrates, 456;   pollution and, 1271; regeneration and, 1365 Growth hormone, 805 Gruiformes, 125 Grunion, 1423 Guam rails, 453 Guanacos, 156, 383, 577 Guanine, 1740 Guanine (G), 1099 Guinea fowl, 383 Guinea pigs, 383 Guinea worms, 1560 Gulls, 125; instincts, 881; nesting, 1125; scavengers, 1458 Gulper, 1740 Gulpers, 308 Guppies; birth, 132; cannibalism and, 163 Guthrie, Edwin Ray, 1362 Gymnophiona, 30 Gymnosperms, 622, 1740 Gymnothorax, 430 Gynogenesis, 1217 Gypohierax angolensis, 395 Gypsy moths, 154 Gyrfalcons, 533-534 H Habitat destruction; Africa, 526; eagles, 397; Easter Island, 570;   ecological niches and, 413; Europe, 555; hawks, 735; jaguars, 901; lions, 956; Madagascar, 563;   mountain lions, 1075; mountains, 1077; pollution and, 1269, 1272; population fluctuations   and, 1283; snakes, 1524; storks, 1548; turtles, 1624 Habitat isolation, 895 Habitat loss, 109, 420, 448; Asia, 534; extinction and, 517;   leopards, 947; pandas, 1210; rain forests, 1352; wildlife management and, 1692 Habitat selection, 1740 Habitats, 107, 115, 709-715, 1633, 1740; demography and, 320; ethology   and, 481; fish, 596; management, 1690; marine, 994; marsupials, 1015; migration   and, 1036; nocturnal animals, 1135; owls, 1183; protective, 317; rain   forests, 1350; territoriality and, 1592; wings and, 1697 Habituation, 716, 721, 936; reflexes and, 1359 Hadalpelagic zone, 995 Hadogenes troglodytes, 1460 Hadrosaurs, 355, 722-724 Hadrosaurus foulkii, 722 Haeckel, Ernst, 337, 758, 1083 Haemonchus contortus, 1434 Hagenbeck's Tierpark, Germany, 1718 Hagfish, 925-929, 1317 Haikouella, 1320 Hailman, Jack, 882 Hair, 37, 642-645, 983, 1319; cells, 737; exoskeletons and, 501;   horns, 811; quills, 645, 1298; shedding, 1052 Hairy frogs, 527 Hairy woodpeckers, 1703 Halberg, Franz, 1422 Haldane, J. B. S., 726, 1286 Haliaetus albicilla, 394, 397, 735 Haliaetus leucocephalus, 394, 735 Haliaetus pelagicus, 394 Haliaetus vociferoides, 395 Haliotidae, 1518 Hall, Marshall, 1361 Hallucigenia, 1317 Hamadryas baboons, 82, 1189 Hamilton, William D., 870, 1584 Hammer (ears), 402 Hammerhead sharks, 1488 Hammerkops, 527 Hamsters, 1429 Hand, 1740 Hanuman langurs, 537 Haplodiploidy, 866, 1740 Haploid, 1740 Haplorhini, 1325 Haplosporidium nelsoni, 1174 Harbor porpoises, 376, 378 Hardin, Garrett, 688 Hardy-, 725-730 Hardy-Weinberg law of genetic equilibrium, 10, 725, 730, 1139, 1286 Hardy, Godfrey H., 725 Harem, 1740 Harems, 752, 1192; courtship and, 286; deer, 312; elephant seals, 432;   elk, 438; estrus and, 478; hermaphrodites and, 755; moose, 1064; polygyny, 1019;   reproduction and, 1375; seals and walruses, 1467; sex determination and, 1483 Hares, 1344-1346; arctic, 534 Harker, Janet, 801 Harlequin ducks, 391 Harpia, 731 Harpy eagles, 396, 731 Harpya harpyja, 396 Harriers, 394, 731 Harvestmen, 65 Harvey, Alan, 1575 Harvey, William, 1243, 1709 Hatchetfishes, 121 Hatching, 131 Hauser, Marc, 306 Havell, Robert, Jr., 124 Haversian systems, 468, 1740 Hawk-eagles, 732 Hawk owls, 1183 Hawks, 126, 731-736, 1636 Hawksbill turtles, 453 Hayflick finite doubling potential phenomenon, 950 Hearing, 85, 399, 737-740, 1473; communication and, 253; dogs, 373; estrus   and, 476; imprinting, 850; insects, 876; owls, 1184; ranges, 403; vocalizations and, 1654 Heart, 35, 741-744, 1740; aging and, 14; dinosaurs, 138; four-chambered, 217;   hibernation and, 761; invertebrate, 210; myogenic, 212, 217; neurogenic, 212; three-chambered, 217 Heartworms, 1646 Heat, 1740 Hedgehogs; estivation, 474; nesting, 1126 Hediger, Heini, 1720 Heinroth, Oskar, 881 Helicotrema, 738 Heliotherms, 1600, 1740 Heliozoa, 1497 Helix aspersa, 1518 Helper T cells (TH), 847 Hemichordata, 205 Hemimetabolous, 1740 Hemipenis, 278, 834, 958 Hemo-chorial placenta, 1250 Hemocyanin, 1403 Hemocyanins, 1414 Hemocytoblasts, 807 Hemoglobin, 742, 1131, 1409, 1414, 1505, 1740 Hemolymph, 211, 742, 1414, 1532, 1740 Hemotoxin, 1740 Hemotoxins, 1262 Hendrickson, Sue, 1627 Hepatitis viruses, 364 Herbivores, 342, 409, 615, 745-749, 986, 1148, 1160, 1436, 1450, 1740;   beavers, 97; coevolution and, 244; deer, 312; giraffes, 670; homes, 773; horns, 811;   kangaroos, 906; mollusks, 1050; offspring care, 1156; pandas, 1209; reindeer, 1370;   ungulates, 225, 1629; zooplankton, 1713 Hercules beetles, 103 Herds, 698, 750-753, 979, 1187; antelope, 44; deer, 312; dinosaur, 54;   domestication and, 380; elephants, 434; elk, 439; estrus and, 478; giraffes, 671;   hippopotamuses, 769; horses, 816; life spans and, 951; mammoths, 988;   reindeer, 1371; ungulates, 1631; zebras, 817 Heredity, 338; life spans and, 951 Heritability, 1740 Herman, Louis, 934 Hermaphrodites, 754-756, 892, 1019, 1479, 1483, 1740; birth   and, 131; crustaceans, 303; fish, 597; flatworms, 603; moray eels, 430; snails, 1518; worms, 1707 Hermatypic coral, 1740 Hermit crabs, 288, 302, 1559; defense mechanisms, 315 Herons, 1552; tool use, 1614 Herpesviruses, 364 Herpetology, 1711 Herring, 860 Hershey, Alfred, 666 Hertwig, Richard von, 254 Hesperornis, 123 Hess, Eckhard, 853 Heterocephalus glaber, 977 Heterocercal, 1740 Heterocercal tails, 591, 1576, 1687 Heterochrony, 338, 757-760, 1740; clock model, 339 Heterodonts, 1581, 1740 Heteronetta atricapilla, 389 Heterostraci, 927 Heterotrophs, 244, 615, 618, 1740; animals, 1240; competition and, 266; protozoa, 1331 Heterozygote, 1740 Heterozygote genotypes, 1139 Hexacorallia, 280 Hexactinellid sponges, 1536 Hexactinellida, 1535 Hexapod, 1740 Hibernacula, 1740 Hibernation, 5, 761-764, 1740; bats, 86; bears, 93; circannual rhythms   and, 1423; desert animals, 329; estivation and, 473; grizzly bears, 690; hormones   and, 799; humans and, 764; lemurs, 944; nutrient requirements and, 1149; squirrels, 1538;   thermoregulation and, 1600; warm-blooded animals and, 1664; wasps, 1667 Hibernation inducement trigger (HIT), 762 Hierarchies, 20, 94, 147, 267, 765-768, 1741; chimpanzees, 203;   domestication and, 380; horses, 816; packs and, 1187; territoriality and, 1594 High altitude; hypoxia and, 1402 High-lift wings, 1698 Higher insects, 1741 Hiliastur indus, 732 Hilus, 909 Hindbrain, 143, 1120 Hindgut, 343 Hinnies, 386 Hippocampus abdominalis, 1464 Hippocampus bargibanti, 1463 Hippocrates, 1709 Hippopotamus amphibius, 769 Hippopotamuses, 769-771, 923, 1630 Hipposcampus ingens, 1464 Hirudinida, 833 Histamine, 360 Histology; endoskeletons, 467 Histone H4, 1131 Histones, 333 Histrionicus histrionicus, 391 Hives, 99, 772 Hog cholera, 1646 Hog-nosed skunks, 1507 Hogs, 1246-1248 Hölldobler, Bert, 869 Holocephali, 1487 Holoplanktonic zooplankton, 1713 Holostei, 595 Holothuroidea, 407 Homarus americanus, 290, 301 Homarus gammarus, 290 Homarus vulgaris, 301 Home building, 96, 772-775; ants, 51; nesting, 1125; social insects, 868; termites, 1590 Home range, 1741 Homeobox, 778, 1741; hormones and, 808 Homeodomain protein, 778 Homeosis, 776-781, 1741 Homeostasis, 805, 908, 1229, 1473, 1599, 1710, 1741 Homeotherms, 5, 249, 1025, 1600, 1663, 1741 Homeotic genes, 1102, 1317 Homeotic selecter genes, 777 Homeotic selector genes, 1741 Homing pigeons, 1037 Hominidae, 758, 782, 823, 1326 Hominids, 57, 782-789, 1741; estrus and, 478; language and, 932; vocalizations, 1657 Hominoidea, 57 Homo, 823, 1115; evolution, 489 Homo rudolfensis, 1200 Homo erectus, 782, 791, 1200 Homo habilis, 784, 823, 1200 Homo neanderthalensis, 1115 Homo sapiens, 758; human, 790-797; human diversification and, 790, 797; language and, 930 Homocercal, 1741 Homocercal tails, 591, 595 Homodonts, 1581, 1741 Homologue, 1741 Homozygotes, 1287, 1741 Homozygous recessive condition, 665 Honest signaling, 366 Honeycreepers, 1525; beaks and bills, 89 Hoof and mouth disease. See Foot and mouth disease Hooke, Robert, 628, 1710 Hooker, Joseph, 1111 Hookworms, 1560 Hooves, 45, 223-226, 673, 1062; endoskeletons and, 467; horses, 815;   hyraxes, 839; reindeer, 1370; ungulates, 1629 Hormonal deficiency; invertebrates, 459 Hormones, 461, 1385, 1390, 1741; aging and, 13; antlers and, 813;   behavior, 798, 803; digestion and, 350; estrus and, 476; gametogenesis and, 649;   hermaphrodites, 755; invertebrates, 456; lactation and, 916; lipids and, 1149; mammals, 804-810;   molting and, 1052; osmoregulation and, 1172; pheromones and, 1233; placenta and, 1249;   pregnancy and, 463, 1311; regeneration and, 1365; sex differentiation and, 1484 Hornbills, black-and-white casqued, 857 Horned vipers, 537 Horner, Jack, 723 Hornets, 1666, 1668, 1741 Horns, 314, 673, 811-814, 1741; American pronghorns, 24;   antelope, 44; endoskeletons and, 467; giraffes, 670; herds and, 752; narwhals, 376;   rhinoceroses, 1419; sheep, 1493; Triceratops, 1616; ungulates, 1629 Horseflies, 607 Horses, 147, 688, 748, 815-819, 1631; Arabian, 537; domestication, 383;   herds, 752; lactation, 917; military, 1648 Horseshoe crabs, 820-822; shells, 1497 Hosts, 1558, 1741 House mice, 1033 House sparrows, 1525, 1634 Howler monkeys, 551 Hrdy, Sarah, 478 Hsing Hsing (panda), 238 Hua Mei (panda), 238 Hubbard Brook Project, 425 Hublin, Jean-Jacques, 1116 Huias, 90 Hull, Clark Leonard, 1362 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 526 Human-animal interactions; carnivores, 168 Human-animal interactions, 380; dogs, 373; foxes, 635; grooming, 696;   jaguars, 900; mice and rats, 1033; zoos, 1716 Human diversification. See Homo sapiens and human diversification Human evolution, 823-828 Human evolution analysis, 823, 828 Human Genome Project, 668 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 362, 848 Human origins; baboons and, 82 Humans, 1741; cannibalism and, 164; extinction and, 508 Humboldt penguins, 1222 Humboldt, Alexander von, 580 Humboldt, Alexander von, 1565 Humidity, 1741 Hummingbirds, 126, 829-831, 1256; Costa's, 329; heart rates, 742;   ingestion, 862 Humoral immunity, 1741 Humpback whales, 1685 Humpbacked salmon, 1443 Humphrey, G., 718 Humps, camel, 157 Hunting; African wildlife, 526; ducks, 392; effect on wildlife   populations, 305; endangered species and, 448; extinction and, 508; groups and, 701;   poaching, 452; wildlife preserves and, 1691; wildlife management and, 1690; zoos and, 1716 Hunting strategies; carnivores, 166; echolocation, 402 Hunting spiders, 65 Hunting strategies, 1306; cats, 172; cheetahs, 194; coevolution   and, 246; cooperation, 699; crocodiles, 298; eagles, 395; hawks, 731; humans, 796;   leopards, 946; lions, 955; mountain lions, 1073; owls, 1183; packs, 1187-1188; praying   mantis, 1301; primates, 1324; snakes, 1523; social organizations and, 980; squid, 1151; venom, 1262 Huso huso, 595 Hutchinson, G. Evelyn, 423 Hutias, 548 Huxley, J. S., 340 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 69, 442, 782, 1108 Hyaenidae, 836 Hybrid, 232-235 Hybrid swarms, 234, 895 Hybrid vigor, 1741 Hybrid vigor and mules, 386 Hybrid zones, 232, 235, 661 Hybridization; fertilization and, 586; gene flow and, 661 Hybrids, 895, 1741 Hydra, 79 Hydras; tool use, 1615 Hydration, 1216 Hydrologic cycle, 922, 1741 Hydrophiinae, 1523 Hydrostatic pressure, 1170 Hydrostatic skeletons, 212, 499, 832-835, 1091, 1706, 1741 Hydrothermal vents, 1002; fauna, 997 Hydroxyapatite, 812, 1149 Hyenas, 527, 836-838; carnivores, 166; homes, 773; infanticide   among, 856; packs, 1187; scavengers, 1457 Hygroreceptors, 1473 Hygroscopic, 1741 Hylidae, 30 Hylobatidae, 1326 Hylopatidae, 57 Hymenoptera, 20, 99, 865, 1666 Hynobildae, 30 Hyoid bones, 170, 1741 Hypercalcemia, 806 Hyperdactly, 1741 Hyperdactyly, 842 Hyperglycemia, 806 Hypermorphosis, 757, 1741 Hyperosmotic, 1741 Hyperosmotic solutions, 1171 Hyperphalangy, 1741 Hyperplasia, 363 Hyperresponsiveness, 718 Hyperstriatum, 144 Hyperventilation, 1402, 1742 Hypoblast, 229 Hypocercal tails, 591 Hypodermis, 500, 1497, 1503 Hypoosmotic, 1742 Hypoosmotic solutions, 1171 Hypophyseal hormones, 806 Hypophysectomy, 649 Hypophysis, 805, 1742 Hyposmia, 1516 Hypothalamus, 143, 461, 805, 1120, 1385, 1390, 1599, 1742 Hypothermia, 1602 Hypoxia, 1401, 1742; flight and, 1407 Hypsilophodon, 355 Hyracoidea, 1629 Hyraxes, 839-841 I Iberian lynx, 555 Ichnofossils, 631 Ichnology, 1742 Ichthyology, 1711 Ichthyornis, 123 Ichthyosaurs, 842-844, 1396; convergent evolution, 274 Ichthyostega, 1318 Ichthyostegalia, 27 Ictinateus malayensis, 396 Ictinia plumbea, 732 Iguanas, 328, 547, 961, 1397; Galápagos Islands, 559; Madagascar, 562 Iguania, 960 Iguanosaurus, 1320 Ileum, 351 Imaginal disk, 1742 Imaginal disks, 776, 1030, 1366, 1695 Immigration, 1275, 1292, 1742 Immune system, 35, 845-848; aging and, 14; diseases and, 361; lactation   and, 916; placenta, 1250 Immunization, 361 Immunodeficiency diseases, 362 Immunological memory, 361 Impalas, 44 Imprinting, 849-855, 938, 1742; ethology and, 481; Lorenz, Konrad, 850; zebras, 817 Impulse, 1742 In situ, 1742 In situ hybridization, 778, 1742 In vitro fertilization, 587 In vitro culture, 183, 335 Inbreeding, 1287, 1742; nonrandom mating and, 1140 Incisors, 1581, 1742 Inclusive fitness; ethology and, 482 Incomplete tetanus, 1095 Incubation, 130 Incus, 739 Independent assortment, law of, 666 Indian ducks, 390 Indian rhinoceroses, 1421 Indicator species, 1742 Indonesian salmon-crested cockatoos, 1214 Indris, 943 Induction and growth, 705 Inductive reasoning, 1243 Industrial melanism, 1742 Inertia, 1742 Infanticide, 83, 856-858, 1188 Infauna, 1742 Infections, 361-362 Inferior colliculi, 1120 Inflammation, 360; immune system and, 846 Information processing; nervous systems and, 1121 Infundibula, 1408 Ingestion, 35, 342, 859-864; anteaters, 71; beaks and bills, 90; pelicans, 1219 Inhibition; habituation and, 718 Inia, 843 Initial conditions, 1066 Ink; octopuses, 160 Ink, cephalopod, 1152 Innate, 1742 Inner ear, 737 Innovation and evolutionary explosions, 517 Inquilinism, 1558 Insect societies, 702; ants, 51; bees, 99; communication and, 252;   homes, 772; termites, 1589; Wilson, Edward O., 869 Insectivores, 694, 985, 1241, 1500, 1742 Insects, 40, 48, 75, 103, 152, 873-879, 1053; Africa, 527; ants, 51;   birth, 131; brain, 142; control, 2, 86; ears, 399; Edentate ancestors, 74; endocrine   systems, 458; estivation, 473; Europe, 557; exoskeletons, 500; flies, 606; flight and, 612;   Galápagos Islands, 560; grasshoppers, 683; hearts, 741; herbivores, 745; hydrostatic   skeletons, 833; invertebrates, 889; locomotion, 963; metamorphosis, 1029; muscles, 1089;   Pacific Islands, 572; pheromones and, 1234; poisonous, 1263; praying mantis, 1301;   regeneration, 1364; smell and, 1514; societies, 865-872; stink bugs, 316; tracheas, 974;   wasps, 1666; wings, 1695 Insight, 938 Insight learning, 1742 Instar, 1052 Instincts, 880-884, 1742; altruism, 19; emotions and, 445; ethology   and, 482; imprinting and, 850; insects, 876; migration and, 1004; reflexes and, 1359 Instrumental conditioning, 937 Insulin, 462, 806, 916, 1131; genetics and, 668; insects versus   vertebrates, 459 Integument, 1502; exoskeletons, 500 Integumentary processes, 1742 Intelligence, 885-888; chimpanzees, 783; cuttlefish, 1152;   elephants, 436; gorillas, 679, 682; nervous systems and, 1122; octopuses, 1151;   Odontoceti, 377; pigs, 1248; primates, 61, 1324; vertebrates, 1642; whales, 1684 Interbreeding, 271, 894, 1742; Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, 1115 Intercalated disks, 1096 Interference, 1742 Interfertile, 1742 Intermediate host, 1742 Intermolt, 1052 Internal naris, 1144 International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature, 1566 International Council for Bird Preservation, 448 International Society for the Protection of Wisent, 451 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 293,   448, 453, 1548, 1720 International Union of Biological Sciences, 1566 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 379, 1685 Interneuron, 1742 Interneurons, 1120, 1358 Interspecies nuclear transfer, 237 Interspecific competition, 265 Intersterility, 895 Interstitial cells, 1391 Interstitial fluid, 1742 Intertidal zone, 994 Intestine, 343, 350-351, 1742 Intracellular fluid, 1743 Intraspecific competition, 265, 411 Intrauterine oöphagy, 1688 Intrinsic rate of increase, 1743 Introgression, 232, 235, 1743 Introgressive demes, 234 Introgressive hybridization, 661 Inulin, 911 Invagination, 1743 Invaginations, 1414; gas exchange and, 651 Invertebrate zoology, 1711 Invertebrates, 38, 496, 889-893, 1743; bioluminescence, 119;   brains, 141; circulatory systems, 210, 215; claws, 225; ears, 399; endocrine systems, 456, 460;   exoskeletons, 499; eyes, 521-522; Madagascar, 562; mollusks, 1048; muscles, 1087, 1093;   regeneration in, 1364; squid, 1152; tracheas, 974 Involuntary, 1743 Involuntary striated muscle, 1096 Ion concentration regulation, 909 Ion regulation, 1171 Ionic concentrations, 462 Iridescent, 1743 Iridium, 508; extinction and, 513 Iridophores, 1505 Iris, 1652 Iron; respiration and, 1414 Irruption, 1743 Ischigualasto Formation, Argentina, 354 Islets of Langerhans, 806 Isogamy, 1478, 1743 Isolating mechanisms in evolution, 11, 234, 662; cheetahs, 194; mountains, 1076 Isoptera, 865 Isosmotic, 1743 Isosmotic solutions, 1170 Isozymes, 662 Isozymic variation, 1129 Isurus oxyrinchus, 1488 Iteroparous species, 1382 Ivory, 1584, 1743 Ivory