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American First Ladies First Ladies and Policy Issues The notion of presidents’ wives being involved in the public policy process is a phenomenon isolated to the latter part of the twentieth century. In the past, the lack of voting rights and educational opportunities for women contributed to a societal belief that women were not qualified to comment on political matters. The twentieth century brought with it women’s suffrage, increasing standards of education for women, and substantial numbers of middle-class women entering the work force. As the role of women in society changed, the role of the First Lady changed as well. History Given the scant resources of the earliest First Ladies, it is not surprising that their role in shaping public policy was limited. This does not mean that the early First Ladies were inactive; rather, their roles were restricted to sponsoring charities and advising their husbands on policy decisions and political appointments. Historian Laura Holloway places the responsibility for this role with Martha Washington. She notes that: Her sphere was limited entirely to social occupations, and possessing wealth and position, she gratified her taste. Had her character been a decided one, it would have stamped the age in which she flourished, for, as there never was but one Washington, so there will never come a time when there will be the same opportunities as Mrs. Washington had for winning a name and individuality. Because Martha Washington did not seek to expand the role of the First Lady, it remained limited for a substantial time thereafter. There are large differences in personalities and marital relationships among First Ladies as well as variations in their political and social environments. The participation of First Ladies in the governmental process can be classified along two dimensions: their level of policy involvement and their level of independence from their spouses (the presidents). These distinctions enable us to separate First Ladies who were sources of influence and support for their husbands but had no interest in public policy from First Ladies who pursued more far-reaching agendas. The level of policy involvement will divide First Ladies into two groups: those who were involved in policy issues and those who were not. Non-policy issues are defined as charities or causes that are not controversial, whereas policy issues are substantive and more controversial. Issues such as children or mental health care advocacy are viewed as causes rather than policy issues because no one opposes children or aiding the mentally ill. Non-policy issues also include administrative matters such as presidential appointments, because these disputes often revolve around personalities rather than policies.  Florence Harding, center, receives the wives of a Philippine delegation seeking thye recognition of complete independence of the islands, 1922. (Library of Congress) First Ladies will also be classified according to whether they pursued interests that were dependent on their husbands’ agendas, or outside of the scope of their husbands’ agendas. First Ladies who lobbied their husbands to adopt a particular course of action are considered independent because their views evolved separately from those of their husbands. These two dimensions divide First Ladies into four categories. First Ladies who engaged in no policy activity and were dependent on their husbands’ agendas are “domestic partners.” These First Ladies may have been good hostesses, campaigned with their husbands, and raised funds for charitable causes, but they were either not interested in public policy, or they did not wish to rock the boat. Other First Ladies had little interest in public policy, but they did attempt to influence their husbands’ political appointments and alliances. These First Ladies are “administrative specialists.” Other First Ladies have made their policy beliefs public, in most cases expressing views that support their husbands’ agendas. These are the “policy supporters.” For a First Lady to be a policy adviser, she must have her own beliefs on a wide range of issues and must seek to gain support for her beliefs. She may lobby her husband, testify before Congress, and even grant media interviews to discuss her agenda. This type of First Lady is a “policy proponent.” She is different from other First Ladies because her views have evolved independently of her husband’s agenda; they are truly her beliefs and concerns. Additionally, they are issues of major political import, where serious political disagreement is possible. Domestic Partner The “domestic partners” category contains the largest number of First Ladies and spans the longest period of time, ranging from Martha Washington to Barbara Bush. Given the limited public role permitted women through even the later stages of the twentieth century, it is not surprising that most First Ladies restricted their activities to charitable work, noncontroversial causes, and private support for their husbands’ agendas. Martha Washington set the precedent by acting as a gracious hostess and promoting charitable organizations for veterans. Dolley Madison used her position to draw attention to the plight of orphans, and Abigail Fillmore promoted literacy and libraries. Lucy Hayes worked for the cause of temperance, and Caroline Harrison promoted women’s education. Nellie Taft brought Japanese cherry trees to Washington, D.C., and Ellen Wilson promoted rural American crafts and the causes of poor and neglected children and the mentally ill. Grace Coolidge took a special interest in the education of deaf children, drawing from her past experience as a teacher of the deaf. Mamie Eisenhower was concerned about cancer and polio and assisted the Red Cross in blood drives. Jacqueline Kennedy embarked on a major historical restoration of the White House, producing a variety of books and documentaries, and establishing a permanent curator. Pat Nixon advocated volunteerism, and Barbara Bush promoted literacy. The vast majority of First Ladies have been associated with charitable interests and political causes. A handful, including many early First Ladies as well as Ida McKinley and Bess Truman, did not commit to any specific, identifiable charity or cause but contributed more generally wherever the assistance of a First Lady was needed. Some First Ladies advised their husbands on appointments and policy decisions. First Lady historian Carl Sferrazza Anthony suggests that while James Madison confided to his wife “the conversations of cabinet meetings, congressional reports, military maneuvers, and diplomatic dispatches,” Dolley Madison remained discreet and took no public position on policy issues. Instead, she aided her husband’s agenda through invitations to dinners and social events and the cultivation of personal relationships with potential political allies. Dolley Madison also had a reputation for patronage, and friends relied on her influence to help them gain government appointments. In this sense, it may appear that she is better represented by the “administrative specialist” category than the “domestic partner” category. However, Mrs. Madison’s lobbying efforts do not show evidence of independence of her husband’s agenda, making her different from First Ladies such as Nancy Reagan, who sought to undermine her husband’s preferred political advisers. Dolley Madison is also different from other domestic partners in the zeal and energy with which she helped to advance her husband’s career. Sarah Polk also assisted her husband in such ways as clipping articles on topics she deemed important. Like Dolley Madison, however, she had no independent policy agenda and kept her influence private. Jane Pierce also served as an assistant to her husband, Franklin Pierce. In this role, she opposed his signing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and disagreed with him on the feasibility of war if the South seceded from the Union. Because their policy disagreements remained private, however, Jane Pierce cannot be categorized as more than a domestic partner. If she had been more outspoken, she may have become the first policy advocate. Other First Ladies led more private lives. Little has been written about Elizabeth Monroe; she fulfilled the traditional hostess duties, but her schedule was restricted by illness. Like Elizabeth Monroe, Louisa Adams suffered from poor health, and her activities were quite limited. Letitia Tyler is believed to have advised her husband when he became president, but she was in ill health and died after having made just one public appearance. Margaret Taylor assumed a similarly subdued role, refusing to even pose for a portrait. Eliza Johnson suffered from tuberculosis, and while she did advise her husband, she made few public appearances. Lucretia Garfield’s husband was shot after four months in office, and died soon after. Administrative Specialist First Ladies in the administrative specialist category are those who stretched the role of personal adviser to play a more active role in their husbands’ administrations. While these First Ladies were not always in the public eye, they exercised independence from the president in expressing their views on his advisers and political alliances. Consequently, they may have influenced public policy, although only indirectly. Abigail Adams probably originated the role of administrative specialist. Her role as a personal adviser to her husband is well known. Her letters to friends and family demonstrate intimate knowledge of the workings of government, including information that today would be considered classified. John Adams trusted his wife more than his formal advisers, and it is generally assumed that she influenced his personnel decisions and alliances. Mary Todd Lincoln publicly boasted that she planned to help her husband select his cabinet once he was elected. In addition to submitting requests for patronage to the president, there is evidence that Mrs. Lincoln made appointments without his consent by using War Department stationery and signing her own name, with the words “by order of the President through the War Department.” She lobbied for the dismissal of Secretary of State William H. Seward and Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, although she did not succeed. She recommended the promotion and dismissal of various military leaders throughout the Civil War and even ordered military supplies, in addition to her charitable work with injured soldiers and former slaves. Like Mrs. Lincoln, Julia Grant had great interest in her husband’s appointments; she demanded to know of his plans and attempted to influence his choices whenever she had the chance. Consequently, he occasionally went to great lengths to keep his plans from her. Similarly, Nellie Taft pressured her husband to pursue the presidency. Mrs. Taft managed her husband’s schedule and had some influence over his appointments and political allies until her disabling stroke early in his term. Woodrow Wilson’s second wife assisted him in his day-to-day activities beyond the usual scope of involvement for a First Lady because of her husband’s health problems. During World War I, Edith Wilson helped her husband decode secret military messages. After the war, Wilson had a stroke and the scope of Mrs. Wilson’s assistance expanded. She became a gatekeeper between Wilson and the rest of the world, including his personal advisers. Those she disliked, such as the president’s secretary Joseph Tumulty, had difficulty gaining access to the president. Mrs. Wilson also refused admission to Lord Edward Grey, an ambassador sent from Great Britain to aid Wilson in obtaining Senate approval for membership in the League of Nations. Grey eventually returned to London in disgust, and U.S. membership in the League was never ratified. Mrs. Wilson was not opposed to the League; it is widely believed that she had no agenda outside of her husband’s. However, she did object to jokes told by Grey’s assistant about her premarital involvement with the president and, as a result, Wilson’s commitment to world government was permitted to suffer. Similar to Mary Lincoln, Florence Harding played an active role in her husband’s administration, and Warren G. Harding openly acknowledged his wife’s position as a full partner. She went on the campaign trail and assisted in speech writing. Like Mrs. Lincoln, she advised her husband on political appointments. However, in the case of Florence Harding, the advice was not always sound, and individuals whom she had helped to promote were found to have swindled large sums of money from the federal government. When her husband died unexpectedly, she destroyed numerous government documents related to the scandal, perhaps to preserve his memory or to save herself from further investigation. Nancy Reagan was also active in matters of personnel administration. Like Florence Harding and Mary Lincoln, Mrs. Reagan was concerned with the loyalty of her husband’s advisers. She was influential in the dismissals, resignations, and reassignment of countless presidential advisers and cabinet secretaries. Nancy’s overriding concern was her husband’s public image and his popularity. Many historians believe that image maintenance, rather than substantive policy concerns, were the motivating factors in Nancy’s behind-the-scenes personnel maneuvers. According to most accounts, Nancy had little interest in influencing public policy. Her major cause, drug awareness, was remarkably bereft of any policy implications. While she promoted drug awareness, President Ronald Reagan cut federal funding for drug treatment programs. Mrs. Reagan did not support the passage of specific drug-related legislation. Nancy’s concern for her husband’s image is an element common to all First Ladies in the administrative specialist category. Such First Ladies usually had strong partnerships with their husbands, and were so concerned about the loyalty of their husbands’ advisers that they went to great efforts to influence who those advisers were. Policy issues played a minor concern and became important only if personnel issues were viewed as hampering the president’s policy agenda. Policy Supporter Many First Ladies promote causes that are noncontroversial, such as Nancy Reagan’s antidrug campaign and Barbara Bush’s advocacy of literacy. These are not issues in the true sense of the word because they do not contain multiple and competing positions—few Americans can be said to be pro-drug abuse or pro-illiteracy. First Ladies in the policy supporters category are those who took public positions on controversial issues to promote their husbands’ agendas. They risked public criticism for not “knowing their place”—a place that had been defined for them by decades of First Ladies who chose not to venture into the policy arena. Most examples of policy supporters have been fairly recent, although the first instance of policy support by a First Lady occurred in one of the earliest presidential administrations. President John Tyler’s youthful second wife, Julia Tyler, had a reputation for hostessing that rivaled Dolley Madison’s, although Julia’s stay in the White House was brief. Like Mrs. Madison, Julia handled patronage requests and used her social skills to advance her husband’s agenda. Julia differed from Dolley in that she was the first president’s wife to publicly profess support for a controversial policy issue—the annexation of Texas. She lobbied members of Congress, distributed pamphlets, and witnessed the critical vote from the visitors’ gallery of the House. She was the first president’s wife to be the subject of an issue-based political cartoon, and she received the pen used by the president to sign the annexation papers. In her role as a policy supporter, Julia Tyler was not necessarily more powerful than First Ladies who played the role of domestic partner, such as Sarah Polk. What makes Mrs. Tyler different from the other First Ladies of her era is that her activities in support of her husband went beyond hostessing, and were in the public eye. By contemporary standards, Julia Tyler’s policy advocacy is not unusual; however, for her time, Mrs. Tyler’s activity was unique. It captured the attention of the press, and it was more steeped in controversy than traditional behind-the-scenes maneuvering of politically interested First Ladies. Lou Hoover was also active in supporting her husband’s policy agenda. Like other First Ladies, she had many charitable causes and served as a political adviser to her husband. Before Herbert Hoover was elected president, Lou Hoover had been more outspoken and independent in her policy agenda. Once he was elected, she toned down her rhetoric and played the role of supportive wife. The Great Depression began a mere eight months after Herbert Hoover took office, and because Hoover did not believe in government-sponsored programs to alleviate economic dislocation and poverty, Lou’s public appearances promoted private charity and encouraged housewives to be frugal in their households and generous with those less fortunate. Lou became embroiled in controversy when she invited the wife of an African American congressman to tea. Other congressional wives had routinely been invited to social events at the White House, but Representative Oscar DePriest’s wife had not. The Hoovers decided to remedy the oversight and perhaps set an example at the same time. Mrs. DePriest was invited to tea, along with other congressmen’s wives who supported the Hoovers’ views on racial fairness. As a result, Lou and her husband were widely criticized by the white press in the South, and the Texas legislature passed a resolution chastising Mrs. Hoover. While other First Ladies supported racial equality in private, Lou was the first to take a public position in an era when her actions would inevitably generate much public debate. Like Lou Hoover, Rosalynn Carter’s tenure as First Lady was marked by poor economic conditions. Like the Hoovers, the Carters integrated the presidency with their marriage. Early in his term, President Jimmy Carter asked his wife to visit the leaders of seven Central and South American countries to persuade them to support the American Convention on Human Rights and to make Latin America a nuclear-free zone. She noted that while the leaders she visited were generally receptive to her, the press was not always so friendly. She recalled one critic saying: “You have neither been elected by the American people nor confirmed by the Senate to discuss foreign policy with foreign heads of state. Do you consider this trip an appropriate exercise of your position?” Rosalynn’s response is an example of how a policy supporter views her position: “I am the person closest to the president of the United States, and if I can explain his policies and let the people of Latin America know of his great interest and friendship, then I intend to do so.” Mrs. Carter made a similar visit to Thailand in 1979 to examine the problem of Cambodian refugees at her husband’s request, culminating in a successful lobbying effort for United Nations relief. Policy Advocate Several twentieth century First Ladies took public positions on controversial issues. Policy advocates differ from policy supporters in that they advance policies that do not originate with their husbands. They may persuade their husbands to support their agenda, but the initiative for the policy is theirs. Given the limited role of the First Lady historically, policy advocates often find themselves criticized in the media for failing to conform to social expectations about how active the president’s wife should be. The most notable First Lady in this respect was Eleanor Roosevelt. President Franklin Roosevelt’s polio necessitated that Eleanor take center stage in a variety of political activities. She traveled extensively as an adviser to her husband, visiting sharecroppers’ shacks in the South and soldiers’ tents in Guadalcanal. She wrote detailed reports complete with policy recommendations after each visit. She and President Roosevelt seldom traveled together, making her more visibly independent than other First Ladies, including those who were her successors. Eleanor’s activities went beyond the mere promotion of her husband’s agenda. She was truly an independent actor. Her charitable causes were extensive, and she was not afraid to find herself at the center of a political controversy by promoting racial integration and the rights of working women. Eleanor’s policy-making activities were numerous and included affordable housing for the poor, expansion of political and economic opportunities for African Americans in the South and elsewhere, and youth employment. Biographer Joseph Lash claims that Eleanor was the driving force behind many of President Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. She was more radical than her husband and more willing to pursue innovative projects in the face of partisan criticism. Lash views Franklin as the conservative and politically savvy member of their partnership, whereas Eleanor was the liberal conscience who pushed her husband to embark on social reforms. Sometimes Mrs. Roosevelt was successful, and on other occasions, the president had to refuse her requests. Unlike her predecessors, Eleanor had many public forums through which to espouse her views. She wrote a syndicated daily newspaper column, contributed to women’s magazines, made weekly radio addresses, and was a popular speaker on the lecture circuit. Eleanor Roosevelt was a tough act to follow for many reasons. Her children were grown, giving her time to pursue her interests. She was well educated and confident of her abilities. She found the traditional daily demands of her position unsatisfying, although such demands often overwhelmed later First Ladies who had larger personal staffs. Eleanor also had a husband who did not mind her being thrust into the spotlight; rather, he created opportunities for her to work and encouraged her efforts. It took thirty years before another First Lady with her own policy agenda emerged on the political scene. Betty Ford’s husband was an unelected president, and her time in office was short. During Gerald Ford’s term, Betty campaigned tirelessly for the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, became a spokeswoman for breast cancer prevention after she was diagnosed with the disease, and spoke out on controversial issues, such as civil rights and gay rights. Consequently, she was the target of political criticism and was even picketed by demonstrators outside of the White House gates. Given her brief time in the White House, Betty could never begin to match the accomplishments of Eleanor Roosevelt. Few First Ladies were ever in Eleanor Roosevelt’s position. The First Lady who most resembles her, in fact, cited Eleanor Roosevelt as one of her role models. Hillary Rodham Clinton’s time as First Lady resembles that of Eleanor on many levels. Like Eleanor, Hillary had political causes she brought to the White House with her, gleaned from her experience as a governor’s wife. For her era, Hillary was well educated, and like Eleanor, she had a husband who was supportive of her agenda and provided her with the resources necessary to carry it out.  Hillary Rodham Clinton and daughter Chelsea Clinton are greeted by US land mine detection team members in Tuzla, Bosnia, March, 1966. (AP/Wide World Photos) The most visible aspect of Hillary Rodham Clinton’s policy advocacy occurred early in her husband’s administration, when she headed a task force on health care reform. After President Bill Clinton’s failure to get their plan through Congress and the criticism of Hillary that the plan provoked, she engaged in less controversial projects, such as child welfare. Mrs. Clinton became more outspoken and independent once she decided to run for the Senate, but at that point her role could no longer be defined as a First Lady; rather, she had become a political candidate in her own right. It may also be appropriate to classify Lady Bird Johnson as a policy advocate, although historians seem to view her as a more traditional, less controversial First Lady. Most scholars agree that Lady Bird had an independent policy agenda: beautification. However, viewing Mrs. Johnson’s efforts merely as attempts to make cities more attractive is to miss the broader focus of her agenda. During Lyndon Johnson’s administration, Lady Bird lobbied Congress to limit the billboards and the thousands of junkyards that lined highways in the United States. Such legislation was opposed by business owners and some members of Congress, and Lady Bird was lampooned in political cartoons which derided her efforts.
Significance When we place First Ladies into this typology, some definite patterns emerge. First, the active involvement of a First Lady in promoting her husband’s policies or advocating her own personal agenda is rare. Most First Ladies, past and present, have been content to play the role of domestic partner. Earlier First Ladies were somewhat more dependent and less policy-oriented. This is not surprising, given the restricted public lives led by women throughout most of American history. As women have attained more rights, higher levels of education, and better conditions of employment, First Ladies have become more active and more powerful. Education and a more liberal society are not sufficient, however, to create First Ladies who are active in public policy. Even among the more recent First Ladies, we find many domestic partners. Women such as Grace Coolidge may have taken on more active roles had their husbands permitted them to make public appearances and been willing to solicit their political advice. Additionally, women such as Pat Nixon may have been more influential had her husband’s advisers not actively labored to limit her public appearances and her access to the president. The policy activities of the next First Ladies will depend on their own willingness to be involved and the cooperation of the presidents. Suggested Readings Anthony, Carl Sferrazza. First Ladies: The Saga of the Presidents’ Wives and Their Power. 2 vols. New York: William Morrow, 1990-1991. A unique glimpse at the power and prestige in the evolving role of the First Lady. Boller, Paul F. Presidential Wives: An Anecdotal History. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Boller devotes a chapter to every First Lady from Martha Washington to Hillary Rodham Clinton. Carter, Rosalynn. First Lady from Plains. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984. Rosalynn Carter’s candid memories of her life before and during her First Ladyship. Holloway, Laura Carter. The Ladies of the White House: Or, In the Home of the Presidents. Reprint. New York: A. M. S. Press, 1976. Further subtitled Being a Complete History of the Social and Domestic Lives of the Presidents from Washington to the Present Time, 1789-1882, this book includes twenty-five leaves of plates. Lash, Joseph P. Eleanor and Franklin. New York: W. W. Norton, 1971. Joseph Lash, secretary and confidant to Eleanor Roosevelt, won a Pulitzer Prize for this biography. Valerie Sulfaro |
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